34 ● Anita Gibbs and Kate van Heugten
clients to adapt to stress or problem-solve their stressful interactions with
systems, and to enable the client to reach a sense of connection to broader
systems of influence in their lives (Germain and Gitterman 1980; Healy 2005).
To apply an ecosystems framework to Aleena’s case, it would be impor-
tant to analyze the significant environments of influence in her life, at all
five levels. At the microsystem level, significant influences would be her
relationships with her children, her mother, her former or current partners,
her friends, and community organizations (such as a religious congregation)
in which she might be closely involved. The mesosystem refers to interac-
tions between these microsystems. When microsystems work well together,
they are more likely to successfully combine their efforts to support Aleena
and her family. At the exosystem level, there might be interactions between
Aleena and several, but not all, of the organizations that influence her and
her children. Exosystems include social welfare agencies, health providers,
educational systems, charitable organizations offering support, police, and
potential employment systems. An analysis of exosystems would also con-
sider the relationships and quality of communication between those orga-
nizations. At the macrosystem level, Aleena would be impacted by societal
constructions of mothering, gender roles, single parenthood, poverty, and
government policies. Finally, the chronosystem identifies the impact of time,
transitions, and life events on Aleena.
Pincus and Minahan (1973) suggested that, to intervene in an individual’s
life using an ecosystems framework, a human service worker would, with the
person’s full participation, define the “target system,” the part of the system
that needs to change, and then collaboratively develop the “action system,” the
system that builds the people and resources required to bring about change to
the target system. From a life model perspective, assessment and intervention
for Aleena would concentrate on transactions between the various systems in
Aleena’s life and improving or changing those, rather than trying to identify or
solve individual problems or the causes of problems (Healy 2005).
Anti-oppressive and Empowerment FrameworksThe anti-oppressive framework was first developed during the 1960s and
1970s; it aims to challenge oppressive structures and dominant ideologies
in order to create a fairer, more just, and more inclusive society (Connolly
and Healy 2013; Dominelli 1998). Originating in the United Kingdom,
an anti-oppressive framework incorporates ideas and concepts from radical,
Marxist, feminist, antiracist, and queer discourses. Dominelli (1998) has
been particularly influential in developing feminist and antiracist social work
and anti-oppressive practice.