54 ● Kate van Heugten and Anita Gibbs
involved (Banks 2012; Gray and Gibbons 2007). Like other professions, the
social work profession has now turned its attention to the relevance of ethical
philosophy and ethical theory (Banks 2008). Social work educators have
begun to realize that it is not sufficient to teach students about codes of ethics
and about rule-based processes for solving dilemmas. Educators are moving
away from an emphasis on codes and are instead teaching students about
theories of values and ethics. This introduces prospective human service prac-
titioners to ethical thinking, so that they are equipped to analyze complex
dilemmas when they encounter them in their working lives (Cowden and
Pullen-Sansfacon 2014).
Ethical Theories Underpinning Ethical Decision MakingSocial work ethical thinking has tended to reflect common ethical theories
dating back to eighteenth century Europe. The German philosopher Immanuel
Kant argued that we should treat individuals with respect, as being ends in
themselves, and not use individuals as means to other goals. Also, in the
eighteenth century, John Stuart Mills proposed a utilitarian ethical theory,
which privileges decisions that achieve the greatest good or happiness for the
greatest number of people. In contrast to Kantian ethical thinking, utilitarianism
discounts the particular experiences of individuals (Banks 2006; Cowden and
Pullen-Sansfacon 2014).
Social work ethical thinking has tended to reflect Kantian principles,
although not in a purist form. This thinking has recognized that to always
prioritize commitments and responsibilities to individuals might harm many
people but to sacrifice the individual to the greater good might lead to signifi-
cant harm to some, to an extent that most people would consider inhumane
(Banks 2006).
These earlier rationalist ethical theories were located in a historical con-
text when theorists looked for universal scientific rules to solve big social
questions. Today, by contrast, ethical theorists are more likely to emphasize
interpersonal relationships that reflect commitments of care, and relational
contracts between workers and service users that involve principles such as
trust and responsibility (Banks 2008). Concepts such as practical reasoning
and close consideration of power and oppression also pervade recent debates
(Cowden and Pullen-Sansfacon 2014).
The movement away from the idea of universal values has inevitably raised
questions about how this might further complicate the resolving of ethical
dilemmas. Hugman (2012) pointed out that the complexities of resolving
ethical dilemmas arise not only from worker-client interactions but also in
multidisciplinary teams because of the differing perspectives held by the