Montoya, J.M. and Sole, R.V. (2003) Topological properties
of food webs: from real data to community assembly
models.Oikos, 102 , 614–22.
Murtaugh, P.A. and Kollath, J.P. (1997) Variation of tro-
phic fractions and connectance in food webs.Ecology,
78 , 1382–7.
Neutel, A.-M., Heesterbeek, J.A.P. and de Ruiter, P.C.
(2002) Stability in real food webs: weak links in long
loops.Science, 296 , 1120–3.
Nishikawa, K.C. (1985) Competition and the evolution of
aggressive-behavior in 2 species of terrestrial salaman-
ders.Evolution, 39 , 1282–94.
Ohgushi, T. (2005) Indirect interaction webs: herbivore-
induced effects through trait change in plants.Annual
Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 36 ,81–105.
Oksanen, L., Fretwell, S.D., Arruda, J. and Niemela ̈,P.
(1981) Exploitation ecosystems in gradients of primary
productivity.The American Naturalist, 118 , 240–61.
Olesen, J.M., Bascompte, J., Dupont, Y.L. and Jordano, P.
(2006) The smallest of all worlds: pollination networks.
Journal of Theoretical Biology, 240 , 270–6.
Olff, H., Vera, F.W.M., Bokdam, J.,et al. (1999) Shifting
mosaics in grazed woodlands driven by the alternation
of plant facilitation and competition.Plant Biology, 1 ,
127–37.
Otto, S.B., Rall, B.C. and Brose, U. (2007) Allometric degree
distributions facilitate food-web stability.Nature, 450 ,
1226–30.
Pace, M.L., Cole, J.J., Carpenter, S.R. and Kitchell, J.F.
(1999) Trophic cascades revealed in diverse ecosystems.
Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 14 , 483–8.
Paine, R.T. (1966) Food web complexity and species diver-
sity.The American Naturalist, 100 , 65–75.
Paine, R.T. (1988) Food webs: road maps of interactions or
grist for theoretical development?Ecology, 69 , 1648–54.
Petandiou, T. and Ellis, W.N. (1993) Pollinating fauna of a
phryganic ecosystem: composition and diversity.Biodi-
versity Letters, 1 , 9–22.
Petchey, O.L., Beckerman, A.P., Riede, J.O. and Warren,
P.H. (2008) Size, foraging, and food web structure.Pro-
ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 105 , 4191–6.
Pierce, G.J. and Ollason, J.G. (1987) 8 reasons why optimal
foraging theory is a complete waste of time.Oikos, 49 ,
111–18.
Pimm,S.L. (1980) Properties of food webs.Ecology, 61 ,
219–25.
Pimm, S.L. (1982)Food Webs. Chapman and Hall, London.
Pimm, S.L. (1984) The complexity and stability of ecosys-
tems.Nature, 307 , 321–6.
Pimm, S.L. (1991)The Balance of Nature?The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
Pimm, S.L. and Lawton, J.H. (1977) Number of trophic
levels in ecological communities.Nature, 268 , 329–31.
Pimm, S.L. and Lawton, J.H. (1978) On feeding on more
than one trophic level.Nature, 275 , 542–4.
Polis, G.A. (1991) Complex trophic interactions in deserts:
an empirical critique of food web ecology.The American
Naturalist, 138 , 123–55.
Polis, G.A. and Winemiller, K., eds. (1996)Food Webs: Inte-
gration of Patterns and Dynamics. Chapman and Hall,
London.
Post, D.M. (2002) The long and short of food-chain length.
Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17 , 269–77.
Post, D.M., Pace, M.L. and Hairston Jr, N.G. (2000) Eco-
system size determines food-chain length in lakes.Na-
ture, 405 , 1047–9.
Prins, H.H.T. and Olff, H. (1997) Species richness of Afri-
can grazer assemblages: towards a functional explana-
tion. In Dynamics of Tropical Communities (eds
D. Newbery, H.H.T. Prins and N.D. Brown), pp. 448–- Blackwell, Oxford.
Proulx, S.R., Promislow, D.E.L. and Phillips, P.C. (2005)
Network thinking in ecology and evolution.Trends in
Ecology & Evolution, 20 , 345–53.
Reichenbach, T., Mobilia, M. and Frey, E. (2007) Mobility
promotes and jeopardizes biodiversity in rock-paper-
scissors games.Nature, 448 , 1046–9.
Rezende, E.L., Lavabre, J.E., Guimaraes, P.R.,et al.(2007)
Non-random coextinctions in phylogenetically
structured mutualistic networks.Nature, 448 , 925-U6.
Ringel, M.S., Hu, H.H., Anderson, G. and Ringel, M.S.
(1996) The stability and persistence of mutualisms em-
bedded in community interactions.Theoretical Popula-
tion Biology, 50 , 281–97.
Rooney, N., McCann, K., Gellner, G. and Moore, J.C.
(2006) Structural asymmetry and the stability of diverse
food webs.Nature, 442 ,265–9.
Root, R.B. (1967) The niche exploitation pattern of the
blue-gray gnatcatcher.Ecological Monographs, 37 , 317–
Rosenzweig, M.L. (1971) Paradox of enrichment: destabi-
lization of exploitation ecosystems in ecological time.
Science, 171 , 385–7.
Schmid-Araya, J.M., Schmid, P.E., Robertson, A.,et al.
(2002) Connectance in stream food webs.Journal of Ani-
mal Ecology, 71 , 1056–62.
Schoener, T.W. (1971) A theory of feeding strategies.An-
nual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 2 , 369–404.
Schoener, T.W. (1983) Field experiments on interspecific
competition.The American Naturalist, 122 , 240–85.
Schwartz, M.W. and Hoeksema, J.D. (1998) Specialization
and resource trade: biological markets as a model of
mutualisms.Ecology, 79 , 1029–38.
REFERENCES 205