consequence of differential fishing effects on species
with contrasting life histories.Journal of Animal Ecology,
68 , 617–27.
Jennings, S., Reynolds, J.D. and Polunin, N.V.C. (1999b)
Predicting the vulnerability of tropical reef fishes to
exploitation with phylogenies and life histories.Conser-
vation Biology, 13 , 1466–75.
Jennings, S., Pinnegar, J.K., Polunin, N.V.C. and Boon,
T.W. (2001) Weak cross-species relationships between
body size and trophic level belie powerful size-based
trophic structuring in fish communities.Journal of Ani-
mal Ecology, 70 , 934–44.
Johnson, C.N., Isaac, J.L. and Fisher, D.O. (2007) Rarity of a
top predator triggers continent-wide collapse of mam-
mal prey: dingoes and marsupials in Australia.Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 274 , 341–6.
Kangas, P., Autio, H., Haellfors, G.,et al. (1982) A general
model of the decline ofFucus vesiculosusat Tvaerminne,
South Coast of Finland in 1977–81.Acta Botanica Fennica,
118 , 1–27.
Knowlton, N. (1992) Thresholds and multiple stable states
in coral reef community dynamics.American Zoologist,
32 , 674–82.
Knowlton, N. (2004) Multiple ‘stable’ states and the con-
servation of marine ecosystems.Progress in Oceanogra-
phy, 60 , 387–96.
Law, R. (2000) Fishing, selection, and phenotypic evolu-
tion.ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57 , 659–68.
Leibold, M.A. (1989) Resource edibility and the effects of
predators and productivity on the outcome of trophic
interactions.The American Naturalist, 134 , 922–49.
Leibold, M.A. (1996) A graphical model of keystone pre-
dators in food webs: trophic regulation of abundance,
incidence, and diversity patterns in communities.The
American Naturalist, 147 , 784–812.
Leibold, M.A., Holyoak, M., Mouquet, N.,et al. (2004) The
metacommunity concept: a framework for multi-scale
community ecology.Ecology Letters, 7 , 601–13.
Lewontin, R.C. (1969) The meaning of stability.Brookhaven
Symposia in Biology 22 , 13–23.
Loreau, M., Downing, A., Emmerson, M.,et al. (2002) A
new look at the relationship between diversity and sta-
bility. InBiodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Synthesis
and Perspectives(eds M. Loreau, S. Naeem and P. In-
chausti), pp. 79–91. Oxford University Press, New
York, NY.
Lotze, H.K., Reise, K., Worm, B.,et al .(2005) Human
transformations of the Wadden Sea ecosystem through
time: a synthesis.Helgoland Marine Research, 59 , 84–95.
MacArthur, R. (1955) Fluctuations of animal populations
and a measure of community stability.Ecology Letters,
36 , 533–6.
McCann, K.S. (2000) The diversity-stability debate.Nature,
405 , 228–33.
McCann, K.S., Hastings, A. and Huxel, G.R. (1998) Weak
trophic interactions and the balance of nature.Nature,
395 , 794–8.
McClanahan, T.R., Kamukuru, A.T., Muthiga, N.A.,et al.
(1996) Effect of sea urchin reductions on algae, coral,
and fish populations.Conservation Biology, 10 , 136–54.
Menge, B.A. (1995) Indirect effects in marine rocky inter-
tidal interaction webs: patterns and importance.Ecolog-
ical Monographs, 65 , 21–74.
Micheli, F. (1999) Eutrophication, fisheries, and consumer-
resource dynamics in marine pelagic ecosystems.Sci-
ence, 285 , 1396–8.
Micheli, F., Cottingham, K.L., Bascompte, J.,et al. (1999)
The dual nature of community variability.Oikos, 85 ,
161–9.
Micheli, F., Halpern, B.S., Botsford, L.W. and Warner, R.R.
(2004) Trajectories and correlates of community change
in no-take marine reserves.Ecological Applications, 14 ,
1709–23.
Mork, M. (1996) The effect of kelp in wave damping.
Sarsia, 80 , 323–7.
Myers, R.A. and Worm, B. (2003) Rapid worldwide depletion
of predatory fish communities.Nature, 423 , 280–3.
Myers, R.A., Baum, J.K., Shepherd, T.D.,et al. (2007) Cas-
cading effects of the loss of apex predatory sharks from
a coastal ocean.Science, 315 , 1846–50.
Odum, E.P. (1971)Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd edn. W.B.
Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA.
Oksanen, L. (2001) Logic of experiments in ecology: is
pseudoreplication a pseudoissue?Oikos, 94 , 27–38.
Olsen, E.M., Heino, M., Lilly, G.R.,et al. (2004) Maturation
trends indicative of rapid evolution preceded the col-
lapse of northern cod.Nature, 428 ,932–5.
Orr, J.C., Fabry, V.J., Aumont, O.,et al. (2005) Anthropo-
genic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century
and its impact on calcifying organisms.Nature, 437 , 681–
6.
Overland, J.E., Percival, D.B. and Mofjeld H.O. (2006)
Regime shifts and red noise in the North Pacific.Deep-
Sea Research Part I-Oceanographic Research Papers, 53 ,
582–8.
Pace, M.L., Cole, J.J., Carpenter, S.R. and Kitchell, J.F.
(1999) Trophic cascades revealed in diverse ecosystems.
Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 14 , 483–8.
Paine, R.T. (1980) Food webs: linkage, interaction strength
and community infrastructure.Journal of Animal Ecolo-
gy, 49 , 667–85.
Parker, J.D., Burkepile, D.E. and Hay, M.E. (2006) Oppos-
ing effects of native and exotic herbivores on plant in-
vasions.Science, 311 , 1459–61.REFERENCES 223