Oxytocin and Social Experience in Development 105Early regulation of oxytocin may have long‐term consequences. It has been
known for many years that exogenous oxytocin in neonates can reverse the
long‐term behavioral effects of prenatal stress [80,81] and has consequences
on other endocrine systems (i.e., the estrogen receptor) as well as on blood
pressure [81] in adults. The effects of oxytocin, or of the environmental and
familial circumstances resulting in increased production of mature neonatal
oxytocin, on adult social behavior remain to be investigated. With respect to
oxytocin receptor expression, increased levels have been observed in offspring
after communal rearing [82], increased maternal licking/grooming, and social
enrichment [83]. On the contrary, late weaning has been reported to reduce
oxytocin receptor density in selected, socially relevant, brain regions [82].
Furthermore, maternal separation has been found to induce a complex, region‐
specific modulation of oxytocin receptor expression [10,84]. It is important to
note that exploration of early life experience on the oxytocin–oxytocin recep-
tor system in animals provides a scientific basis for new child care and new
therapeutic approaches to ameliorating social alterations occurring in adult
patients afflicted with ASDs or Prader–Willi syndrome (see below).
Exogenous OXTExogenous OXT Reproductive experience:
mating, pregnancy, and
parturition
Social memory
Social experience
Social behaviorOXT magnocellular neuronsin the
hypothalamus: OXT productionAutoregulation
Dendritic OXT
central releaseDendritic OXT
central releaseAnterior
pituitaryCSF
Posterior
pituitaryAxonal OXT
peripheral releaseFigure 4.4 Effects of oxytocin on various human physiological responses including human
reproduction, social behavior, social experiences, social memory, and overall social
communications. Source: Adapted from http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/
fnins.2012.00182/full. Reproduced with permission of Frontiers Media SA.