Front Matter

Effects of Fragrances on Male Oxytocin‐Receptor Positive Neurons 185

concentrations of certain fragrances, but this is more pronounced in male
fetal progenitor brain neurons. Our studies are the first to reveal a direct
connection between fragrance exposure and neuromodifications that may
contribute to autism and provide insight into gender bias. As shown in
Figure  7.3, male NBCs exposed to extremely small concentrations of fra­
grances (fragrances A, B, and C) have profound neuromodifying effects.
Most interesting among these findings was the depletion or significant
reduction in oxytocin‐ and AVP‐receptor positive neurons in male, but not
female, cell lines.

Control

Fragrance A

Fragrance B

Fragrance C

Figure 7.4 Effects of fragrances on female oxytocin‐receptor positive neurons: female NBC
control neurons showed oval‐shaped neurons with axons that normally extended ~2× the
length of the average neuron size in this cell line. The immunostaining showed that ~35% of
the female NBCs were oxytocin‐receptor positive neurons. Female NBCs exposed to
fragrances exhibited increased expression of oxytocin‐receptor positive neurons, notable
modulation of neurons, increased areas of cell clustering, increases in cell size to 2× or more,
and increases in axonal length to 3–6×, as compared with the controls. In addition, the
immunostaining showed stippling, suggesting membrane antigen redistribution and
modulation. Source: Adapted from Ref. [4].