Synthetic EDCs 195
spruce construction products and can also be inhaled during forest walking
(e.g., from pine wood trees), and accumulated in plasma [94].
Limonene belongs to the terpene family. Terpenes are one of the largest
groups of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are widely used to make us
feel good in our work environments. Terpenes are also used as solvents and in
paints. Terpenes constitute ~13% of the total VOC concentration in pine wood
flooring material. These chemicals are highly reactive with air and create
ozone. Some components in air fresheners combine with ozone and produce
strong toxins such as oxidative products, secondary aerosols, and formalde
hyde, all of which can damage a developing fetal brain when a pregnant woman
is breathing these chemicals. Limonene causes respiratory disease as well as
damage to the liver, kidney, and nervous system [95].
α‐Pinene
α‐Pinene, an alkene that has a reactive four‐membered ring, is a chemical
that was originally derived from natural oil from pine trees. Like limonene, it
is also a terpene, and is chemically synthesized. A clear liquid with a sweet
piney odor, α‐pinene is the main ingredient and starting material in making
aroma‐like chemicals such as terpineol. In addition, α‐pinene is also an
ingredient in various consumer goods such as fragrances, soaps, and disin
fectants. Presence of α‐pinene creates a reaction in the air and the combina
tion of ozone and α‐pinene produces formaldehyde, acetone, and picric acid,
three air pollutants. Serious pulmonary effects of α‐pinene byproducts have
been reported [96]. There are no reports on the potential adverse effects of
α‐pinene on fetal brain cells.
Synthetic EDCs
Both male and female hormone disruptive chemicals are known to impart
adverse health effects through interaction with the endocrine and central nerv
ous systems (summarized in Table 7.1). The US EPA defines EDCs as exoge
nous agents that interfere with normal physiological or biochemical functions
of human beings. These include (but are not limited to) to synthesis, secretion,
metabolism, transport, binding action, detoxification of natural blood‐borne
hormones that are present in the body and are responsible for reproduction,
and development and homeostasis of human bodily functions. These chemi
cals can accumulate and persist in various parts of the human body and may or
may not cause clinically observable effects (reviewed in Refs [7,96]).
We will concentrate on synthetic chemicals that may change the natural
levels of sex hormones in the fetal amniotic fluid during gestation. Exposure of
