NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 11meaning that his rights as a citizen,
granted to him by jus soli (Latin for “right
of the soil”), were being violated. Because
he was a natural-born citizen, provisions
of the Chinese Exclusion Act did not
apply to him. Wong was released on
bond while his case was heard.
Backed by anti-Chinese forces in San
Francisco, U.S. Solicitor General Holmes
Conrad decided to challenge the Six
Companies and their defense of Wong.
Based on the principle of jus sanguinis
(meaning “right of blood,”) Conrad’s case
argued that Wong’s parentage, not his
place of birth, determined his status;
therefore, he could not be a U.S. citizen
because his parents were Chinese and
that made Wong “also a Chinese person,
and subject of the emperor of China.”
United States v. Wong Kim Ark made its
way to the Supreme Court, where each
side was argued before eight justices (the
ninth, Justice McKenna, was not sit-
ting on the court when arguments were
made). In 1898 Justice Horace Gray wrote
the 6-2 majority opinion, which found
“the American citizenship which Wong
Kim Ark acquired by birth within the
United States has not been lost or taken
away by anything happening since his
birth.” Gray pointed out that there were
exceptions to this rule for children of
“foreign sovereigns or their ministers,...
or of enemies within and during a hostile
occupation... [or] of members of the
Indian tribes owing direct allegiance to
their several tribes.” In a direct refuta-
tion of Conrad’s argument, the majority
pointed out that many children of “En-
glish, Scotch, Irish, German, or other
European parentage” would lose their
U.S. citizenship if their parents’ status
were the determining factor.American Family
After the Supreme Court’s decision
Wong Kim Ark continued to live and
work in the United States but still visitedhis family in China where his wife and
sons lived. The pair had three more sons
together—all conceived on return vis-
its by their father. Despite the court
ruling in Wong’s favor, anti-Chinese
discrimination persisted. Every time
Wong visited China, he still had to fill
out so-called “departure papers” swear-
ing to the fact that he was a U.S. citizen
to be guaranteed readmission.
Passing through Angel Island Immi-
gration Station in San Francisco Bay,
Wong’s sons all joined their father in
California at different times, and he
served as a witness on their behalf. Only
the youngest, Wong Yook Jim, would
make a life for himself in the United
States, even after his father returned to
China permanently in the 1930s at age- Wong Yook Jim found work across
the country as a waiter, and during World
War II, like many other U.S. citizens,
served his country in the armed forces.
—Amy Briggs
ANGEL ISLAND
ELLIS ISLAND is a well-known part of
the history of American immigra-
tion, but Angel Island’s role is far less
familiar. Located off the coast of San
Francisco, California, Angel Island
served as the access point for immi-
grants on the West Coast. It began
operations in 1910, processing nearly
500,000 immigrants from 80 coun-
tries before it closed in 1940. Many
hailed from Asia: China, Japan, Ko-
rea, Vietnam, and the Pacific Islands.
Asian immigrants were detained on
Angel Island, isolated from family
and friends on the mainland while
they underwent medical exams
and long interrogations. Witnesses,
such as family members living in the
United States, could testify on their
behalf. On at least three occasions,
Wong Kim Ark served as witness for
his sons, who traveled from China to
visit their father.THE IMMIGRATION STATION IS PART OF THE
CALIFORNIA STATE PARK ON ANGEL ISLAND TODAY.
LEE FOSTER/ALAMY