lines will be valid. However, these stakeholders look at the target sys-
tem very differently, e.g., they estimate problems differently.
One very simple, but unsolved set of problems associated with the
production of spinach may illustrate this situation. Spinach is fast grow-
ing, has a high demand for nitrogen and is harvested in full growth.
Viewpoint of the consumerinterested in environmental questions and
policymakers: Fertilization practices imply a high input of nitrogen fer-
tilizer and as a consequence high nitrate content of spinach leaves and
more nitrogen to be left in the soil after harvest than acceptable under
environmental considerations. Both may be considered undesirable.
Viewpoint of the producer: Two measures can be taken: reduction of
fertilizer input and/or planting of cash crops after harvest. Reduced fer-
tilization reduces yield appreciably and planting of a cash crop may in-
crease production cost.
Viewpoint of the consumer: May be mainly interested in high-qual-
ity spinach without being too conscious when it comes to fertilizer ap-
plication rates, pesticide use, and so on. Intrinsic factors of quality are
the main focus.
Research that is oriented toward optimization of a production system
(like the example of spinach) must in our opinion show the impacts for
the different groups of stakeholders. This is possible by looking at both
the problem and its solution from the viewpoint of different groups.
Doing that will increase the understanding that “one cannot have it all.”
Modeling the interdependencies mathematically may serve as a tool to
investigate alternative production strategies or products and find out gaps
of knowledge that have to be filled.
At the same time, we face a situation where reduction of the finan-
cial support from governments has raised the discussion of “who should
pay” for agricultural research and extension and of the possibility to find
market solutions. These considerations will include the wish to control
the activities by those stakeholders who are involved in financial sup-
port. A consequence might be an orientation toward a punctual opti-
mization of actual problems through regional solutions while neglecting
the integrative potential of a basic and problem-oriented research.
How Can the Problems be Solved?
It is common sense that different problems need different approaches
for their solution. But it is evident from the above arguments that not
only must the target system and the viewpoints of the stakeholders be