I–4 INDEXBicyclus anynana (squinting bush brown), 153,
154 , 388
“Big bang” (origin of the universe), 435
“Big bang” life history, 284–285
Bighorn sheep (Ovis candensis), 58–59
Bilateria, 441, 442
Binomial nomenclature, 32
Biodiversity. See Diversity
Biogeographic realms, 471–473
Biogeography
definition of and introduction to, 469–470
evidence for evolution, 470–471, 580
geographic patterns of diversity, 484–486
geographic range limits, 481–484
historical explanations of geographic
distributions, 476–480, 481
major patterns of distribution, 471–476
Biological control, 586–587
Biological evolution
definition and concept of, 7–9
descent from a common ancestor, 27–33
differing rates of character evolution,
43–46
divergent, 50–51
evidence for, 44–45, 579–584
as fact and theory, 579
by genetic drift, 61
gradualism, 46
homoplasy, 47–50
human behavior and, 593–599
inheritance and, 103
intellectual and cultural significance of,
573–574
mosaic, 44–46
natural selection and, 13–14, 18, 60–61 (see
also Natural selection)
of a population’s mean fitness, 126–129
from pre-existing features, 43
predictability and contingency in, 540–541
principles of, 18
question of progress, 542
in real time, 104–106
refuting antievolutionary arguments,
575–577
by selection and inheritance, 106–107
by selection on a single locus, 109
side effects, 116–119
in space (see Spatial patterns)
trends, 536–540
ways of studying, 18–20
See also Evolutionary biology
Biological homology, 528–529
Biological species concept
definition and concept of, 215–216
hybrid zones, 217–218
limitations of, 216
reproductive isolation and, 215, 216,
220–227
uses of, 217
Bipedalism, 419, 549–550, 552, 553
Bird beaks/bills
adaptive radiation in Hawaiian
honeycreepers, 502
character displacement in Galápagos
finches, 73convergent evolution, 49
correlated traits in Galápagos finches, 151
directional selection in Galápagos finches,
140–141
ecological character displacement, 337 ,
338
gene regulation and differences in
morphology, 382
genetic correlations and evolvability, 386,
387
gradualism, 46
trade-offs with specialization, 289, 290
Bird song
proximate and ultimate causes of
differences in, 7
transmission of dialects, 98
Birds
adaptive radiations, 50, 51
advantages of specialization, 289, 290
brood parasitism, 327–328
competitive exclusion principle, 482, 483
conflict between mates, 305
convergent evolution, 49
cooperation among unrelated individuals,
297
dispersal and range expansion, 474
diversification in the Cenozoic, 460
endemics, 471
evolution from theropod dinosaurs, 400 ,
401, 402 , 415–416, 456, 516
“frameshift” in digit development, 525
genome size, 346
impact of habitat destruction on, 587
infanticide and brood size, 306
optimal clutch size, 286
parental care, 306
pecten, 68
phylogenetic classification, 425
prezygotic isolation, 226–227
sex determination, 250
siblicide, 307, 308
sympatric speciation, 240
tool making and tool use, 559
Tree of Life, 31
See also Geospiza
Birth weight, 141
Biston betularia (peppered moth), 104–105,
113, 156, 364
Bithorax gene complex, 379
Bivalves
effects of mass extinctions on, 500, 501
extinction rates in the Phanerozoic,
499–500
in the Mesozoic, 452, 453
phyletic gradualism, 534
Black-bellied seedcracker (Pyrenestes ostrinus),
141
Black gram, 560
Black skimmer (Rynchops niger), 387
Blakeslea trispora, 38
Blattella germanica (German cockroach), 105
Blattodea, 450
Blending inheritance, 14–15
Blind cave fish, 152
Blood type, 83Blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), 288
Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), 276, 521
Bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum),
287
Bmp4 gene, 382
Boas, 473
Body fat, 563
Body form, adaptations for swimming in
fishes, 69–70, 71
Body height, 565
Body mass/size
clines in, 192
evolutionary trends, 537
rates of evolution in, 530, 531
relationship of testes weight to in
polygamous and monogamous
species, 70–71
Body segments, Hox genes, 378–381
Boidae, 424 , 473
Bolitoglossine salamanders, 525
Bombyx, 346
Bombyx mori (silkworm), 346 , 561, 585
Bone, 152
Bonobo (Pan paniscus)
BRCA1 gene and positive selection, 184
great apes, 426
language and, 559
relationship to humans, 548, 556
sexual interactions, 549
Bony fishes, 31, 446, 452
Boobies, 307, 308
Bootstrapping, 414
Boreosphenidans, 458
Borgerhoff-Mulder, Monique, 597
Bos, 408
Bothriocideroida, 503
Bothriolepis, 445
“Boundary layers,” 68, 69
Bovidae, 462
Bowfin (Amia calva), 481
Boyd, Robert, 598
Brachiopods, 442
Brachiosauridae, 457
Brachiosaurus, 456
Brachydanio rerio (zebrafish), 581
Bradshaw, Toby, 220–221
Bradshaw, William, 59
Brain size
in hominins, 555
human cognitive abilities and, 558–559
humans and other apes compared, 551
Braincase, 518, 519
Branch points, 33
Branches (of phylogenetic trees)
defined, 33
length of, 35
rejoining of, 38–39
Brassicaceae (mustards), 329, 365
Brassicales, 330
BRCA1 gene, 184, 185, 590
BRCA2 gene, 590
Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum), 345, 365
Breast cancer, 184, 185
Breeder’s equation, 145–146
Brine shrimp, 51 , 383–38427_EVOL4E_INDEX.indd 4 3/22/17 2:01 PM