I–22 INDEXdN/dS ratio and evidence for selection,
184–186, 355
human genetic diseases, 590
MK test, 186
as point mutations, 89
purifying selection and, 175, 354, 355
selection coefficients, 93
Normal distribution, 137
North America, dispersal across the land
corridor with South America, 478
Northern dusky salamander (Desmognathus
fuscus), 197
Northern elephant seal (Mirounga
angustirostrus), 164 , 165, 166 , 173
Northwestern garter snake (Thamnophis
ordinoides), 142–143
Nothofagus (southern beeches), 477
Novel characters, evolution of, 524–529
Nucleotide diversity, 173
Nucleus, horizontal gene transfer with
mitochondria, 350
Nudibranch, 2
Numenius americanus (long-billed curlew), 46
Numenius arquata (Eurasian curlew), 46
Numenius phaeopus (whimbrel), 46
Nyctanassa violacea (yellow-crowned night
heron), 246
Nymphaea lotus, 368O
Oaks (Quercus), 484
Obesity, 565–566, 589, 590
Oceanodroma castro (band-rumped storm-
petrel), 222 , 240
Odd-toed ungulates, 462
Odonata, 450
Odontochelys semitestacea, 521, 522
Odorant receptor molecules, 357
Offspring
infanticide and siblicide, 306–307, 308
number of, 286, 287
parent-offspring conflict, 308
Old World monkeys, 389 , 470, 548
Oligocene epoch, 434 , 451 , 459, 460, 463
Oliva porphyria, 375
Olive shells, 375
Olson, Everett, 386–387
On the Origin of Species (Darwin)
biogeographic evidence for evolution,
470–471
classification and, 424
on complex characteristics, 526
concepts of natural selection and
adaptation in, 56, 57, 59, 61
on “divergence of character,” 337
on the diversity of life, 542
on embryonic development, 369
evolutionary theory in, 13–15
on mutualisms, 334
publication of, 12
on species interactions, 321
Tree of Life concept, 28–30On the Various Contrivances by which British
and Foreign Orchids are Fertilised
(Darwin), 321
Oncorhynchus (salmon), 276, 284–285
Oncorhynchus kisutch (coho salmon), 285
Ontogeny, 371
Onychophora, 384, 442
Oomycetes, 440
Opalinids, 440
Operational sex ratio, 254, 260
Operons, 357–358, 374
Ophioglossum reticulatum, 90 , 91
Ophraella notulata, 219
Ophraella slobodkini, 219
Ophrys apifera, 492
Ophrys scolopax, 74
Opisthokonts, 440
Opistognathus aurifrons (yellow-headed
jawfish), 274
Opossums, 472
Opposable toes, 41–42
Opsins, 421
Optimal clutch size, 286
Optimum phenotype, 141
Opuntia bigelovii (cholla), 56
Or4 protein, 357
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
in ape phylogeny, 548
estimated divergence time, 418
in mammal phylogeny, 408
metabolic rate compared to humans, 560
tool use and, 559
Orchidaceae, 492
Orchidiopsis, 390
Orchids
coevolution with moths, 321, 322
mutualisms, 335–336
number of species, 491, 492
pollination by “pseudocopulation,” 74
scent from used as a sex pheromone by
euglossine bees, 248, 249
Ordovician period
animal life in, 444
colonization of land, 447
life in, 434
mass extinction, 444, 496, 498 , 500
patterns of diversity in, 495–496
ORFX gene, 157
Organic evolution, 7
See also Biological evolution
Orgogozo, Virginia, 523
Oriental realm, 472
Origination rates
following mass extinctions, 501
in the Phanerozoic, 496, 497, 498–499
Oriolia, 51
Ormia ochracea, 253
Ornithischia, 456, 457
Ornithodirans, 455
Ornithorhynchus, 30n
Orrorin, 551
Orrorin tugenensis, 552
Orthogenesis, 15
Orthologous genes, 40
Orthoptera, 404, 450Orthopteroids, 449
Orycteropus afer (African aardvark), 492
Oryctolagus, 408
Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit),
314–315
Oryza sativa. See Rice
Oscillations, in predator–prey interactions,
326–327
Osteoderms, 373
Osteoglossum, 352
Osteolepiforms, 447, 448
Osteoporosis, 566
Ostracoderms, 444, 445
Ostracods, 532, 533
Ostrinia nubilalis (European corn borer), 222
Otolemur, 408
Otopteryx, 390
Otters, 458
Outcrossing, 269–270
Outgroups, 36–37, 402
Ovalipes ocellatus (lady crab), 288
Ovarian cancer, 184, 185
Ovenbirds, 482, 483
Overdominance, 127, 128
Overdrive gene, 229
Overlapping genes, 358–359
Ovis candensis (bighorn sheep), 58–59
Owl monkeys, 389
Owls, 215
Oxymonads, 440
Oxytricha trifallax, 90 , 91
Oysters, 277P
Pääbo, Svante, 554
Paedomorphosis, 372
Pagel, Mark, 70, 535
Pain sensation, 589
Pair-rule genes, 378, 379
Palearctic realm, 472
Paleocene epoch, 434
Paleogene period, 433, 434 , 474
Paleontology, 401
Paleozoic era, 433
Cambrian explosion, 442–443
colonization of land, 447–449
end-Permian mass extinction, 450–451
life on land in, 449–450
overview of life in, 443–447
patterns of diversity in, 495–496
periods and major events in, 434
Paley, William, 56–57
Palms, 240
Pan, 408
Pan paniscus. See Bonobo
Pan troglodytes. See Chimpanzee
Panderichthys, 448
Pangaea, 450, 451 , 452, 476
Pangolins, 461
Pantodon, 352
Paper wasp (Polistes gallicus), 309
Papilio dardanus (African swallowtail), 328,
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