102 Boundaries and Beyond
on the same material and published three decades ago, contains a heavy
dose of nationalistic rhetoric.^4
In recent decades, scholarship on sixteenth-century Sino-foreign
relations has also begun to articulate socioeconomic change and the
internal dynamism of Chinese littoral society. Explaining the surge in
maritime activities along the southeast coast during this period, scholars
have argued that this society was moving from a phase of agrarian
frugality “to a more hustling and bustling phase of agrarian afβluence
greatly promoted by the rising tempo of handicraft and commercial
activities”.^5
The Chinese-Portuguese encounter during this period has been
substantially covered by many βine scholarly works, and Chinese as well
as Portuguese sources have been meticulously combed through. However,
the literature often perpetuates such stereotypes as dynastic decline,
ofβicial intrigues and ossiβied Confucian institutions, and contains details
that often prove confusing and contradictory.
This chapter takes a fresh look at this volatile period of Chinese
maritime history and Ming-foreign relations and clariβies a number of
ambiguous or misinterpreted aspects of the events. It considers both
macro and micro perspectives. On the macro level, the littoral trade, that
was clandestine in nature, βlourished and the Portuguese venture was
integrated into a larger and expanding multinational network. These
developments challenged the imperial government’s Sea Prohibition
(haijin) policy that barred its population from engaging in seafaring
activities. On the micro level, this period of βlux presented local society
with new economic opportunities that were met with great enthusiasm.
Interaction between various domestic and foreign forces produced
both collusion and confrontation. It provided not only impetuses for
human endeavors, but also often paved the way for violence. By pursuing
- The two commentaries are: Chang Wei-hua 张维华, “Ming shi folangji zhuan” 明
史佛朗机传 [Chapter on Portugal in the Standard Dynastic History of the Ming],
in Ming shi ouzhou siguo zhuan zhushi 明史欧洲四国传注释 [A commentary on
the chapters on four European states in the Standard Dynastic History of the
Ming], Yenching Journal of Chinese Studies, monograph Series No. 7 (Peiping:
Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1934; reprint, Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe,
1982); and Dai Yixuan 戴裔煊, Ming shi Folangji zhuan jianzheng 明史佛朗机传
笺正 [A commentary of the chapter on Portugal in the Standard History of the
Ming Dynasty] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1984). - See, for example, So Kwan-wai, Japanese Piracy in Ming China during the 16th
Century (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1975), p. 63; and Chang
Pin-tsun, “Chinese Maritime Trade: The Case of Sixteenth-Century Fu-chien
(Fukien)”, PhD diss., Princeton University, 1983, also provides a βine example of
this approach.
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