Trade, the Sea Prohibition and the “Folangji” 117
trade goods that the Portuguese required for their ships, greatly helped
Antonio de Faria.^82
The coastal situation was βluid. The majority of the so-called Wokou
(Japanese pirates) were in fact Chinese themselves with the genuine Wo
or Japanese people playing a secondary role.^83 The situation became
even more complex when Portuguese smugglers and Japanese pirates
cooperated with each other along the China coast, something that was
especially prevalent after 1542, when the Portuguese extended their trade
to Japan. This broader trade network led to an increase in Portuguese
activities along the China coast which coincided with an increase in the
depredations of Japanese piracy.^84
Quarrels among different trading parties were frequent, and led to
raiding, plunder and murder.^85 Conβlicts, disputes and disturbances in
coastal society “gradually increased the overall level of violence and
instability”, and the presence of Portuguese ships, guns and men only
aggravated the turbulent situation.^86 The various bands involved in
clandestine activities often committed acts of barbarity in dealing with
their opponents. On one occasion, according to Pinto, António de Faria
held unsuccessful negotiations with a mandarin for the release of some
Portuguese prisoners, after which he stormed the town with 300 men,
including 70 Portuguese, and slaughtered its defenders without mercy.
António de Faria allowed his men an hour-and-a-half to carry off what
they liked and then set βire to the town.^87 The reliability of this story is
dubious, but events of this sort are also described in contemporaneous
Chinese sources.^88 As Zhu Wan observed in 1548, the Chinese and foreign
sojourners on the Zhejiang coast not only traded but also raided and
pillaged the neighboring regions.^89 Zhu was Governor of Zhejian and
concurrently in charge of Min-Zhe coastal military affairs.
- The affair is summed up in Volpicelli, “Early Portuguese Commerce”, pp. 48‒53.
- So, Japanese Piracy, p. 23.
- Boxer, South China, p. xxxvi.
- Ferguson, “Letters”, p. 438; also Cruz, “Treatise”, p. 193.
- Higgins, “Piracy”, pp. 61, 63.
- For the account, see Volpicelli, “Early Portuguese Commerce”, pp. 58‒60.
- See, for example, Ming shi jishi ben-mo 明史纪事本末 [Records of events in
the Ming history] (1658), 55: 10a, in Wenyuange siku quanshu 文淵閣四庫全
書 (hereafter SKQS), Vol. 364, p. 684, concerning pirate attacks on numerous
towns and villages in Chekiang and the burning of public buildings and civilian
houses in late 1547 or early 1548. - Ming jingshi wenbian 明经世文编 [Collected essays on statecraft from the Ming
dynasty] (hereafter MJSWB), comp. Chen Zilong, et al. 陳子龍 (1608‒47), 徐孚