Expanding Possibilities 365
Guangdong coast and in Hainan Island. They could visit all these places
in three days’ sail.^50
Aside from Amoy and Changlim, Canton was another major port in
coastal shipping. During the Tang era (618‒907), Canton was the largest
port in China. In Ming times, it was designated the port of entry for the
tribute envoys arriving from the Nanhai (known as Nanyang during the
Qing, namely: Southeast Asia). It was reported in the 1580s that, “There
are always more ships and barkes [barques], th[a]n are in the whole
countr[y] of Spain.”^51
In 1686, the Ofβice of the Superintendent of Maritime Customs
(known to westerners as the Hoppo) was βirst established in Canton.
Shortly afterward, the management and supervision of maritime trade
was divided into three government-designated organizations, namely
the Waiyang Hang (authorized βirms taking charge of the commerce of
western nations, better known to the Europeans as Hong merchants), the
Bengang Hang (authorized βirms taking charge of Canton junks) and the
Fu Chao Hang (authorized βirms taking charge of Fujian and Chaozhou
junks). Merchants were assigned the duties of managing and supervising
the three branches of maritime trade respectively. The βirst group was
almost wholly composed of Fujian merchants, who had arrived in Canton
in response to the trading opportunities and soon established themselves
in maritime businesses there. Merchants of Fujian origin continued to be
the leading men of the Waiyang Hang until its failure in 1827‒29. The
second group was composed of Canton merchants, but very probably
of Fujian or Chaozhou origins. The third group represented the wealthy
Fujian and Chaozhou merchants who were actively engaged in trade with
the Indian [Indonesian/Malay] Archipelago.
Overall, the rapid development of native maritime trade in Canton can
be attributed to the Fujian merchants. As Harry Parkes has commented,
“It is to their industry and enterprise, more than to that of the native
townsmen, that the ulterior prosperity of the port is chieβly due.”
Therefore it should come as no surprise that the Fujianese conducted the
long-distance junk trade and were the sole suppliers of the produce of
the Archipelago along the whole extent of the China coast.^52
- Akira Matsuura, Shindai hansen engan kōunshi no kenkyū, p. 586. In his work,
Akira Matsuura also provides a detailed account of the shipping activities
operated by the Chaozhou merchants. See Section 5, Ch. 1. - Quoted in J.C. van Leur, Indonesian Trade and Society, p.161.
- The information and the quote are cited from Harry Parkes in FO 228/136,
no. 15, John Bowring to The Earl of Malmesbury, 2.11.1852, Encl. 10,
pp. 52b‒55b.