Maritime Frontiers, Territorial Expansion and Haifang 65
[to China].”^20 In 1164, the South Song government granted the title of
kingship to Jiaozhi. This action indicated Song recognition of Annam’s
statehood and the state of Annam (An-nan guo) was also mentioned in
Chinese writings for the βirst time.^21 Thereafter, as Gu Yanwu lamented,
“this country (China) therefore saw it as the like of Korea and Zhenla
(Cambodia) and no longer knew that it used to be an integral part of
China”.^22 The Song author Zhou Qufei was aware of Annam’s independent
status and its adoption of the name Dayue Guo (the Kingdom of Great Viet)
and in fact listed it in the chapter of “foreign states” (waiguo), calling it
the “State of Annam”. However, he refused to acknowledge its legitimacy
and labeled it an illegitimate (wei) political institution.^23 Another Song
text also comments, “Annam ... had been under China’s prefecture-district
administration right up until our own times when it has no longer been
included in the domain (bantu) for the βirst time.”^24 Ouyang Min, another
Song author, designated Annam a “prefecture beyond the pale” (huawai
zhou),^25 a disguised acknowledgement of Annam’s independent status.
One indication of the contraction of the frontier bordering Annam during
the Song can be seen in the erection of two pavilions called Tianyai ting
(Pavilion at the Uttermost Ends of the Earth) and Haijiao ting (Pavilion at
the Edge of the Sea) respectively in Qinzhou and Lianzhou in Guangdong.^26
Today, the combined term “Tianyai Haijiao” refers to the southernmost
point of Hainan. The shifting borders were also indicated by the erection
of “bronze pillars” on the Chinese side of the modern border on several
occasions after Han times.^27
In 1400, the Tran monarch in Annam was deposed by Le Qui Li and
partisans of the Tran Dynasty decided to request Chinese aid to redress
the situation. Their action provided the Yongle Emperor with the pretext
to send an expedition to Tonkin in 1407, where it occupied Hanoi and
- TXJGLBS, 32: 125a.
- Hong Liangji 洪亮吉 (1746–1809), Qianlong fu ting zhou xian tuzhi 乾隆府廳州
縣圖誌 [Illustrated gazetteer of prefectures, subprefectures, departments and
districts during the Qianlong Reign] (hereafter QLFTZXTZ), 50: 6a. - TXJGLBS, 32: 125a.
- LWDD, 2: 1a, 2b, 3a–b.
- Cited in Zheng Ruozeng 鄭若曾 (1503–70), Zheng Kaiyang zazhu 鄭開陽雜著
[A collection of writings (about coastal and inner-waters defense, Japan, and
others)] (hereafter ZKYZZ), 6: 41a. - Ouyang Min, Yudi guangji 輿地廣記 [A geographical encyclopedia], comp.
Ouyang Min 歐陽忞撰 (completed around 1111–17), in SKQS, “History Section”,
38: la. - LWDD, 1: 16a–b.
- Ibid., 10: 7b–8a; TXJGLBS, 28, 36a–37a.