70 Boundaries and Beyond
to China”.^47 Unlike his traditional predecessors, Wang Tao lived at a time
when China had commenced efforts to modernize. Not surprisingly, his
view was imbued with nationalistic βlavor.
Another country that was seen by the Chinese as a model tributary
state was Korea. Again, Jiang Dengyun, probably writing during the
Kangxi reign, said that Jizi (Kija) was granted the feudality of Choson
(Korea) under the Zhou Dynasty. Korea was beyond the frontiers of
Liaodong in Qin t imes, but Emperor Wu of the Han conquered it and
formed four prefectures. Chinese power in the area deteriorated after
the Han. From the Tang Dynasty, Korea again sent tribute to China and
was restored as a Chinese domain during Khubilai’s times. After the
founding of the Ming, King Kongmin sent a congratulatory mission to
the new dynasty and had the title of King of Korea (Koryo) conferred on
him. After four generations, Yi Song-gye usurped the throne and asked
the Ming’s permission to restore the name Choson for his kingdom. The
Yi Dynasty continued sending tribute to the Qing and also adopted the
Chinese prefecture-district system.^48
Coastal Defenses
Despite its possession of a lengthy sea-coast ever since its eastward and
southward expansion, coastal defense, haifang, only really became a
concern of ofβicials and defense strategists from the Ming period when
the country faced a serious threat to law and order from the sea. From
the Jiajing reign, haifang became one of the main policy concerns of
the government.^49 The sea-prohibition policy enacted by the founding
emperor, Hongwu, was now being strictly enforced in an effort to cope
with the new situation. Among its many targets was the menace caused
by the Wo (or Wokou, meaning “Japanese” pirates, real or disguised).
During the period from the sixteenth century to the Opium War, writers
on statecraft deliberated over the issue of coastal defense and contributed
to a large volume of literature on the matter.
The Ming government established garrisons (wei) and military
stations (so) to guard the land; marine palisades (shuizhai) were also
constructed to protect coastal waters.^50 The so were subdivisions of
the wei and formed units of either battalions (qianhu so) or companies
- Ibid., p. 276.
- In HFHZYDCC, 10: 1a.
- Ibid., 9: 12a.
- TXJGLBS, 26: 17b.
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