76 Boundaries and Beyond
distance of βive and ten li respectively in 1662. When the situation
improved, a decision was made to re-extend the boundaries back to
the sea-coast and the coastal defense system based on land forces was
gradually reinstated.^68
Following the Ming model, coastal defenses along the Guangdong
coast were divided into three sectors, namely: Chaozhou and Huizhou on
the eastern βlank; Gaozhou, Lianzhou and Leizhou on the western βlank;
and the provincial capital Guangzhou in the center. Patrol posts and forts
that were equipped with cannon were dotted everywhere along the
coast. A total of 41 fortresses with 312 cannon and 618 military camps
were set up following a recommendation by Governor-General Yang Lin
in the early eighteenth century.^69
After the paciβication of Taiwan, unlike its predecessor, the Qing
government maintained regular βleets to patrol the “outer coastal waters”,
instead of just the “inner coastal waters” (neiyang). These naval forces
were concentrated in Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang. In Guangdong, the
strength of the naval force consisted of 167 junks of various sizes. Large
war junks patrolled the outer coastal waters, but because of their deeper
draughts these vessels found it difβicult to come close to shore at low tide,
a predicament that enabled small boats owned by the local people along
the coast to engage in smuggling activities. To remedy this situation, in
1730 it was decided that, in addition to the large war junks, small patrol
boats would be used in the inner coastal waters.^70 The two sectors of
the sea, covering some 3,000 li of the Guangdong coast from Chaoyang
on the eastern βlank to Qiong (Hainan) on the western βlank, would be
patrolled by 38 separate units under the command of an admiral (shuishi
tidu). Islets, harbors, shoals and half-submerged rocks were meticulously
demarcated so that they could be placed under the different jurisdictions
of the respective prefectures, sub-prefectures, departments or districts.
The duty of patrols in the outer coastal waters was “to defend the
frontier” (han bianchui), whereas the patrols in the inner coastal waters
“strengthened the foundation” (cun genben). Other land units, such as
those in Chao, Hui, Gao, Lian and Lei that were close to seaports, and
units under the Qiong brigade stationed in a vast watery waste, were also
responsible for helping to defend the maritime frontier.^71
In Fujian, Governor-General Manbao set up a naval force of 20
brigades (ying) consisting 152 ofβicers and 19,312 soldiers in the early
- YMXSJL, 1: 12a–13a.
- QCHJTS, in TWWXCK, no. 155, pp. 59, 62.
- GDHFHL, 12: 25a, 27b.
- Ibid., introduction, 2b, 3b and 5: 38b.
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