91developed areas, a poor area, and remote national minority area respectively. The
1990 study focused on examining the implementation of policy on compulsory
education in rural areas and made some regional comparisons between the three
different areas in relation to teacher development and other issues. The data from
the 2010 case studies makes it possible to compare districts now and in 1990 and
see how aspects of teacher deployment and conditions of service have changed.
This can give some insight into whether balanced development is taking place and
how the quality of basic education now varies between different areas, schools
and social groups. The concept of balanced development of compulsory edu-
cation analyses issues from the macroscopic level (inter-regional and within the
region), the middle level (inter-schools) and the microscopic level (inter social
groups), it also looks at issues of imbalance related to educational input, process
and outcomes.
Educational inputs can generally be divided into two parts. First, investment
in infrastructure is needed to provide buildings, classroom space, learning materi-
als, and furniture and equipment, as well as operating budgets. This is a necessary
but not sufficient condition for development. Second, alongside this investment in
human resources determines educational process and quality. This includes sup-
port for students and school management but most importantly it includes invest-
ment in teachers, and in teacher development. Educational inputs are signified by
pupil teacher ratios, class sizes, time on task, learning materials, curricula suited
to students capabilities, and support systems for enrichment and remedial support.
Outcomes can be assessed in a variety of ways that include the attendance and
dropout rate, completion rate, graduation rate for primary school and junior sec-
ondary school, and students’ achievement and behavior.
Teachers’ quality is an important prerequisite for achieving balanced develop-
ment of education and promotion of educational quality. By analyzing the empiri-
cal research data from the three case studies we can gain insight into changing
patterns of provision and both horizontal and vertical imbalances. The construc-
tion of the teaching force in rural areas has changed dramatically over the last
25 years. The changes include the proportion of substitute teachers, the level of
teacher’s salaries and benefits, the qualification rate for teachers and their educa-
tional level, the stability and turnover of teaching staff, the effectiveness of teach-
ing, and the deployment of teachers within schools. The rural teaching force still
has many uneven characteristics and patterns of development that need to be
understood and managed to narrow the gaps, achieve more balanced development,
and improve educational quality.
5.3 Public and Substitute Teachers in Rural Schools
The questions that surround substitute teachers (formerly “publicly supported
teachers” or “minban”) have been central to the development of teachers in rural
areas. These teachers are a special group with a unique history in China. Substitute
5.2 Context of the Research