199some older children seek work in other parts of China before they complete sec-
ondary schooling. They may or may not return and try to re-enrol. A small propor-
tion of children succeed in being transferred to schools outside Zhaojue. Most of
these are from richer households who can pay the costs of private schools, or are
scholarship holders.
Participation rates in schooling for girls are now much closer to parity than in
1990 in Ansai and Zhaojue so considerable progress has been made. This has hap-
pened alongside a general increase in enrolment rates. More may need to be done
to ensure that schools are girl friendly, travel to and from them is safe, that board-
ing arrangements are conducive to well being, and that subsidies and incentives
are offered to those who might otherwise exit schooling early. Though there are
some girl only classes it remains unclear what effect they have. As they have been
operating since 1990 there should be enough evidence to decide whether to repli-
cate them throughout the system, or at least to introduce those elements that have
few costs if these are effective. Thus grouping girls together for teaching has few
costs unless class sizes are very small. Providing additional stipends is an addi-
tional cost.
Orphans were not visible in the 1990 research. By 2010 “left behind” children
who were virtual orphans were present in Ansai and Zhaojue. Zhaojue had also
experienced orphanhood related to HIV and AIDS. The vulnerabilities of orphans
should be addressed both diagnostically and in terms of special support where this
is needed. Without access to household resources any fees charged become exclu-
sionary, so all fees should be waived for all orphans. Stipends are needed to cover
living costs. Sponsored orphan classes offer assistance to some but not all orphans.
There needs to be a clearer acceptance of public responsibility for orphaned chil-
dren who fall under the mandate of the nine year compulsory education law.
9.2.7 Management and Finance
More resources have been made available and the basic system of managing and
financing nine year compulsory education has been transformed. The state now
takes the responsibility for providing the great majority of the resources needed,
which is the common mechanism in high participation countries. This replaces
the system dependent upon local revenue raising which failed to work efficiently,
especially in the poorest counties and when there were slowdowns in economic
growth. The amounts allocated per child have grown considerably and are more
evenly distributed than they were in 1990. However, they may still be insufficient
in the poorest areas to compensate for the lower levels of accumulated stock of
buildings, equipment and learning materials in poorer counties. They may also not
be sufficiently sensitive to the varying conditions from place to place that generate
different needs and costs e.g., of transport, housing, food and communications.
Though the basic system has changed at the county level it remains the case
that central primary schools administer funds and manage lower level schools.
9.2 Ten Issues for Nine Year Compulsory Education