emy of American Poets), Sin (1986, American Book
Award), Fate (1991), Greed (1993), Vice (2000, Na-
tional Book Award for Poetry), and Dread (2003).
Born Florence Anthony in Tucson, Arizona,
the poet Ai, whose name means love in Japanese,
has also used the name Pelorhanke Ai Ogawa or
Florence Ogawa. These names suggest the com-
plex identity that Ai, the name she prefers to go
by, possesses as a multiracial woman living in the
United States. Proudly proclaiming herself to be
half Japanese, an eighth Choctaw, a quarter black,
and a 16th Irish, Ai does not consider herself to
be a writer belonging to any single ethnicity: She
states, “there is no identity for me ‘out there.’ I have
had to step back into my own heart’s cathedral and
bow down before I could rise up” (“Ai” Contem-
porary 1). What Ai considers necessary for the
survival of a multiracial person involves spiritual
transcendence, a transcendence painfully achieved
through a complex understanding of identity. The
theme of transcendence beyond spiritual or bodily
trauma prevails in Ai’s work.
Almost all of Ai’s poetry in some way pertains
to trauma, usually concerning a specific historical
context. The genre of choice for Ai is the dramatic
monologue, and she has reinvented the poetic
form to suit her content choices and stylistic pur-
poses. These content choices and stylistic purposes
are usually informed by the consideration of how
to best portray and depict violence in its various
forms. In Cruelty, Ai portrays fictional characters
suffering in isolated, rural settings from violence
induced by such acts as murder, sexual violence,
and child abuse. Amid the trauma of violence, Ai’s
female characters, usually the victimized, emerge as
survivors. Perhaps the best-known poem of Cruelty
is “Cuba, 1962,” in which a proletariat farmer hacks
off his wife’s feet as a sign of protest, simultane-
ously mutilating the beloved body of his wife and
transcending to an abstract awareness of his social
situation: “I lift the body and carry it to the wagon,/
where I load the cane to sell in the village./Whoever
tastes my woman in his candy, his cake,/it is grief./
If you eat too much of it, you want more,/you can
never get enough.” This poem is typical of Ai’s work
because of its violent imagery, stark language, and
desire for awareness or spiritual transcendence.
The volumes of poetry following Cruelty show
a marked change in personas. From Killing Floor
on, Ai invokes both fictional and historical figures,
mixing fact and fiction. Some critics have faulted
Ai for her departure from historical accuracy, ar-
guing that the blurring of boundaries between fact
and fiction results in irresponsible representations
of reality, especially when trauma and historical
circumstance are intertwined. Other critics con-
tend that Ai renders a more artistic and poignant
picture of human experience with her focus on
imaginative consciousness.
In Ai’s most recent work, Dread, characters
seeking an unobtainable reconciliation with their
psychological and trauma-induced wounds take
center stage. The tragedy of the terrorist attacks
on America on September 11, 2001, is addressed
in this collection, along with childhood abuse,
sexual abuse, war, and other subjects familiar to
Ai’s readers. While Ai’s work is controversial in its
violent imagery and topics, her work is significant
in its contributions to a body of poetry concerning
trauma.Bibliography
Ai. “Movies, Mom, Poetry, Sex, and Death: A Self-In-
t e r v i e w.” Onthebus, nos. 3–4 (1991): 240–248.
“A i .” Contemporary Literary Criticism: Excerpts from
Criticism of the Works of Today’s Novelists, Poets,
Playwrights, Short Story Writers, Scriptwriters, and
Other Creative Writers. Vol. 69, edited by Roger
Matuz, 1–18. Detroit: Gale Research, 1992.
Field, C. Renee. “Ai.” American Poets since World War
II. Vol. 120, edited by R. S. Gwynn, 10–17. Detroit:
Gale Research, 1992.
Wilson, Rob. “The Will to Transcendence in Con-
temporary American Poet, Ai.” Canadian Review
of American Studies 17, no. 4 (Winter 1986): 437–
448.
Julie Elaine Goodspeed-ChadwickAlexander, Meena (1951– )
Born in Allahabad, India, Meena Alexander was
the eldest of three sisters. Educated in India,
Sudan, and Britain, Alexander received a Ph.D.Alexander, Meena 7