equality
In political thought, equality usually refers to how
humans are equal, the same, and deserving, therefore,
of equal treatment by the society and government or
equal conditions in life. The basis for this MODERN
notion of human equality is found in John LOCKE’s
materialist philosophy that emphasizes equal rights to
members of the same species. This egalitarian theory
emphasizes “humanness” over individual differences
in race, color, sex, religion, nationality, disability, edu-
cation, culture, talents, abilities, accomplishments, or
interests. From this biological basis of equality, the
concept of equality before the law, or governmental
treatment of all on an equal basis (rather than DISCRIMI-
NATION) is advanced. The Fourteenth Amendment to
the U.S. CONSTITUTION’s “equal protection” clause is a
codification of this principle. Similarly, the CIVIL RIGHTS
acts that prohibit discrimination in employment or
government services and benefits on the basis of race,
sex, age, religion, national origin, or disability reflect
this species approach to defining equality.
Older bases for defining human equality include
(1) the Judeo-CHRISTIANview that all people are “cre-
ated in God’s image” (Genesis 1:27) or, as Thomas JEF-
FERSONput it in the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, “all
men are created equal”; (2) the Christian view that all
humans are sinful and evil (“all have sinned and fallen
short of the glory of God” [Romans 3:23]) and in need
of redemption and forgiveness through Jesus Christ;
(3) the CLASSICALGreek view in ARISTOTLEthat rational
citizens are equal members of the state; (4) the MARXIST
COMMUNISTtheory that all humans are equal as work-
ers or producers. Each of these foundations of human
equality commend different social consequences: from
total inequality in society but “equal in the sight of
God” to equality before the law but social and personal
inequality; to state guaranteed “equal opportunity” but
unequal wealth, to absolute equality of condition
(income, status, privileges).
In the United States, the equal dignity of all human
beings combines with formal “equality before the law”
to form the most egalitarian culture in the world,
while permitting great difference of wealth, social sta-
tus, prestige, and so on. This ideal is expressed in John
RAWLS’s Theory of Justice,which argues that social and
economic inequalities are acceptable if (1) greater
wealth is secured in such a way as to benefit the least
advantaged (as through invention and sale of labor-
saving devices and the providing of welfare services to
the poor through higher taxes on the rich); and (2)
positions of power and wealth are open to all of ability
to fill them. This DEMOCRATICequality of opportunity
mixed with CAPITALISTfree enterprise (and differentia-
tion of wealth) and with elaborate social welfare bene-
fits to the poor, needy, and disabled.
Equality of individuals leads to equality of their
opinions and ideas, so democratic equality tends to
regard all views (religious, political, ethical) of equal
value. This is opposed to moral HIERARCHY, which
maintains that some beliefs, ideas, and values are supe-
rior to others. This inequality of values is preserved
even in an egalitarian society by means of FREEDOM,
whereby legally equal individuals are permitted free-
dom or LIBERTYof thought, belief, religion, speech, and
so on, which may include believing that a certain sys-
tem, faith, person, or action is better than others. This
moderates the modern, scientific basis of equality (in
biological species) and permits individual and group
differences in democratic society.
This concept and issue of equality is in continual
flux as public debates over discrimination, gifted-stu-
dent programs, differential incomes, and alternative
lifestyles continue. ARISTOTLEstated that justice is pre-
served when equals are treated the same and unequals
are treated differently and that the challenge is to
determine in which ways people are equal in certain
ways and unequal in others.Further Readings
Bedau, H. A., ed. Justice and Equality.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice Hall, 1971.
Pennock, J. R., and Chapman, J. W., eds. Nomos IX: Equality.
New York: Atherton Press, 1967.
Plato. The Republic,A. Bloom, transl. New York: Basic Books,
1968.
Rae, D. Equalities.Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1981.
Tawney, R. H. Equality,4th ed. London: Allen & Unwin, 1952.Erasmus, Desiderius(1466–1536) Dutch Christ-
ian humanist
Erasmus is best known for his CLASSICALscholarship,
his integration of Greek and Roman philosophy and
ethics into CATHOLICEuropean thought, and literary
criticism of church decline (which contributed to the
Protestant REFORMATION). Educated at a school of “The
Brethren of the Common Life” at Deventer, in Paris at
the College of Montaigu, and at the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge in England, Erasmus became
the most famous scholar of his lifetime and was96 equality