revered throughout Europe by clerics and royalty
(including Henry VIII, Charles V, Francis I, and Arch-
duke Ferdinand of Austria).
Erasmus combined the best of classical “humanist”
scholarship with biblical Christianity. He denounced
the formalism, decadence, and superstition of the late
MEDIEVALchurch (for example, in his book, In Praise of
Folly) and urged a return to a New Testament basis of
the CHRISTIAN faith instead of the dry and sterile
scholasticism of the Catholic academics. These ideas of
a reformed, evangelical church contributed to those
Protestant Reformation ideas of Martin LUTHER and
John CALVIN, which finally broke from the Roman
Catholic hierarchy. Erasmus never left the Catholic
Church, however, and eagerly sought reconciliation
between the warring camps of the Reformation. In the
end, he was denounced by both sides, rejected by the
Protestants for remaining with the Catholic Church,
censured by Popes Paul IV and Sixtus V.
Erasmus edited classical Greek and Latin proverbs
in his book Adagia(1500), writings of the early Christ-
ian fathers (St. Jerome, St. Irenaeus, St. Ambrose, St.
AUGUSTINE), and did a new translation of the Bible
(New Testament) from the original Greek into Latin.
His political writings, Manual of the Christian Knight
(1503) and The Education of a Christian Prince(1515),
emphasize the need for religious faith and ethics in
rulers. Ordained a Catholic priest, Erasmus was close
friends with many secular and Christian scholars,
including Thomas MORE(whose Utopiaor ideal Christ-
ian commonwealth, Erasmus influenced).
Further Reading
Binns, L. E. Erasmus the Reformer.London: Methuen, 1928.
ethics/ethical
In political theory, social ethicsrefers to the standards
for good or moral conduct in a political community.
All major political thinkers have a social ethics or
belief in what constitutes a good society, healthy social
relations, and proper conduct of individuals. For
example, the Greek philosopher SOCRATES(Plato’s Apol-
ogy) questions and criticizes his fellow Athenean citi-
zens for their over-concern with money, pride, and
prestige. He urges them to care about more important
things: duty, patriotism, and love of God. A strong,
healthy republic, for Socrates, requires citizens who
practice high social ethics: self-sacrifice, humility, and
honesty. PLATO’s Republicspeaks of ethics in terms of
the VIRTUEof different social classes: Rulers are wise
and good, the military is courageous and honorable,
and the workers are moderate and efficient.
Platonic social ethics are then being in one’s “place”
and doing a good job. ARISTOTLE’s ethics include both
functional excellence and moral excellence. The latter
revolves around the ethics of a good character that
habitually chooses the “Golden Mean”—the moderate
good in human relationship (e.g., generosity rather
than stinginess or extravagance). An ethical person has
such a character, and a good society is full of such peo-
ple (and prepares them through education, economics,
and political participation). St. AUGUSTINE’s ethics
revolve around the CHRISTIANvirtues of humility, rever-
ence for God, and love for others. A good society will
have many such Christians, including in the govern-
ment. St. Thomas AQUINASviews ethics through both
the classics of Aristotle and Christian theology,
through divine law, natural law, and human law. Ethi-
cal conduct is conforming to God, nature, and state.
Modern political “realism,” as in MACHIAVELLI, sees
POWER(gaining and keeping) as the only worldly ethic;
he advises in The Princea ruler to break traditional
morality to maintain order and personal power. Refor-
mation political thinkers LUTHERand CALVINemphasize
the individual’s direct guidance from God in ethics
through reading the Bible and prayer. Modern liberals
HOBBESand LOCKEplace ethics in terms of individual
rights and interests—pursuing private goals and
respecting the individual natural rights of others. COM-
MUNISM(in Karl MARX) situates ethics in historical eco-
nomic class interests, the only social good being
working for the progressive revolutionary social class,
helping it take over the government. FASCISM(in Gio-
vanni GENTILE) holds obedience to the state as the
highest ethical value.
Most political ethics, or view of the good person,
good citizen, and good society, derive from some reli-
gious or philosophical source—a view of HUMAN
NATUREand the just state. The United States, with a
mix of traditions, draws its ethics from a variety of
sources (primarily Judeo-Christian religion, British lib-
eralism of John Locke, classical republicanism, and
Enlightenment ideals). Ethics is studied in theology,
philosophy, and political theory and is applied to law,
business, economics, and psychology, as well as gov-
ernment.
In general, ethics can be divided into positive and
negative. Negative ethics defines social and individual
goodness in terms of what is “not” done (e.g., “Thouethics/ethical 97