cation of the new United States CONSTITUTION. Origi-
nally published in various New York newspapers from
1787–88, The Federalist Papers were soon being
reprinted in newspapers throughout the states and
together in book form. They greatly influenced the
proratification debate by arguing forcefully and per-
suasively for the wisdom and efficiency of the new
constitutional government. They addressed the com-
mon ANTIFEDERALIST, STATES RIGHTS criticisms of the
Constitution by showing that the Constitution es-
tablished a FEDERAL REPUBLIC(not a unitary central-
ized TYRANNY), giving increased power to the na-
tional military and economy but leaving the states
considerable control over domestic policy. They
explained in detail the philosophy and rationale for
the new American REPUBLICas well as the specific pro-
visions for the national government’s structure and
limits. The Federalist Papersreflected both a SOCIAL
CONTRACTview of the state (from John LOCKE) and a
Protestant CHRISTIANperspective (from John CALVIN)
on human nature, politics, and society. In the most
famous philosophical Paper (#10), James MADISON
shows how the Constitution’s system of divided pow-
ers and CHECKS AND BALANCEScomes from a Calvinist
appreciation of human sin, envy, and greed, necessi-
tating a limit on the terms and power of people in
the government. Madison’s famous argument for
PLURALISM(that enlarging the social sphere and num-
ber of competing interest groups will prevent tyranny
and ensure individual liberty) is found in this fede-
ralist paper. The ideals of religious LIBERTY, private
PROPERTY, free enterprise, FEDERALISM, limited govern-
ment, and public VIRTUEare expressed throughout The
Federalist Papers.Consequently, they are considered
the classic early commentary on U.S. constitutional
government and are frequently consulted by scholars
and U.S. Supreme Court justices for the original
meaning and intent of the framers of the United
States system.
Hamilton wrote the majority of the federalist
papers (51), Madison wrote 24, and Jay wrote five. All
were published under the pseudonym “Publius.” They
are credited for persuading a majority of the American
colonies (nine of the 13 were required to ratify) to
accept the new Constitution and abandon the old con-
federacy under the Articles of Confederation.
Further Reading
Main, J. T. The Anti-Federalists.Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 1961.
feminism/feminist
A social ideology associated with the women’s move-
ment in the Western world during the 19th and 20th
centuries. Although a diverse movement, feminists gen-
erally agree on three propositions: (1) Men and women
are fundamentally equal in rationality and ability; (2)
society has historically denied women’s EQUALITYwith
men and has prevented them from fulfilling their
human capacities; and (3) women should engage in
political ACTIVISMto secure legal, political, and economic
equality with men. This feminist theory began during
the MODERN, LIBERAL ENLIGHTENMENT, which attacked the
traditional MEDIEVAL, patriarchal, and Judeo-CHRISTIAN
view of woman as man’s “helpmeet” and as primarily
devoted to husband and children. An early literary
expression of feminism occurred in Mary Woll-
stonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Womanin 1792.
This advocated equal educational, economic, and politi-
cal RIGHTSand activities for women. During the 19th
century in Europe and Britain, the feminist movement
focused primarily on SUFFRAGE, or the right of women to
vote. John Stuart MILL’s The Subjection of Women(1869)
argued that for purposes of political participation one’s
sex made no more difference than having red hair. Dur-
ing this period, feminism was largely a middle-class
movement, but during the 20th century (as with Rosa
LUXEMBURG) a MARXISTor SOCIALISTfeminist movement
emerged that identified the oppression of women with
economic class oppression and EXPLOITATION. In this rad-
ical COMMUNISTfeminism, the only solution to sex dis-
crimination is the overcoming of CAPITALISM, private
PROPERTY, the traditional family, and religion.
In the West, most feminism has involved achieving
equal economic opportunity: education, employment,
and professional advancement—equal pay for equal
work, equal access to traditionally male professions
(law, medicine, clergy, military), and executive and
administrative positions. This concern for equal status
for women has led to social policy concerning such
issues as divorce laws, birth control, ABORTIONrights,
and lesbian rights. These liberal feminist positions are
presented as giving females equality and LIBERTYsimilar
to men. The Liberal wing of the American DEMOCRATIC
PARTYhas adopted most of this feminist agenda; the
more conservative REPUBLICAN PARTYhas not endorsed
it fully.
Contemporary feminist (and postfeminist) theory
varies widely from claiming total equality of the sexes
to a unique distinctiveness (and superiority) of
women, to rejection of all gender identifications (as infeminism/feminist 105