for Gandhi, represented “violence in concentrated
form”; it degrades the human spiritual essence and
oppresses humanity. A very limited state (almost ANAR-
CHY) is the best government because coercion should
be left to a minimum and FREEDOMto a maximum.
Gandhi’s ideal Indian state would be composed of
small, self-governing, self-sufficient village communi-
ties, ruled by social custom and moral conformity and
linked to regional and national assemblies through
elected representatives (not unlike Thomas JEFFERSON’s
system of ward republics). Because he considered
human (spirit) essentially good, Gandhi treated crime
as simply a disease, requiring understanding and help
rather than punishment. Without a Judeo-CHRISTIAN
notion of sin, he could not conceive of a human evil
unable to be cured by educative enlightenment.
Although basically DEMOCRATIC, his political theory
respected minority RIGHTS, religious FREEDOM, and indi-
vidual LIBERTYof conscience. Embracing poverty and
an ascetic lifestyle, Gandhi saw excessive wealth in the
midst of starvation as a moral crime against humanity.
At first, he encouraged the rich and prominent to hold
their property in stewardship voluntarily, giving to the
poor all beyond their basic needs. Later, he saw a more
intrusive role for the state in redistributing wealth
through high taxation, restrictions on inheritance,
state ownership of land, and large industries that led to
SOCIALISMin India).
Gandhi was extremely critical of the West, espe-
cially the British for their worldly wealth, materialism,
pomp, pride, and IMPERIALISM. When once asked what
he thought of Western civilization, Gandhi quipped, “I
think it would be a good idea.” Although not a Christ-
ian, Gandhi admired Jesus Christ, especially his teach-
ings in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5–7).
Gandhi remains one of the greatest political figures
of the 20th century, whose ideals of love and human
dignity, spirituality and nonviolent social change have
inspired many later political activists.Further Readings
Bondurant, J. V. Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy
of Conflict.Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
1958.
Dhawan, G. The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.
Ahmedabad, India: Navajivan Publishing House, 1951.
Gandhi, M. K. The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi.New
Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1958.
———. Hind Swaraj or Home Rule.Ahmedabad, India: Navaji-
van Publishing House, 1938.
———. Non-violent Resistance.New York: Schocken Books,
1951, 1961.
Iyer, R. N. The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi.
New York: Oxford University Pr ess, 1973.
Woodcock, George. Mohandas Gandhi.New York: Viking Press,
1971.general will
A concept usually associated with the French ENLIGHT-
ENMENTthinker Jean-Jacques ROUSSEAU, but of more
ancient origin.
In Rousseau’s political theory (in his book The
Social Contract) the general will is the will of the
whole society properly encoded in LAW. Similar to the
CLASSICALGreek and Roman (e.g., in ARISTOTLEand CIC-
ERO) ideal of the common good, Rousseau contrasts
this universal societal interest with both the particular
will of the individual (private desires, goals, property,
etc.) and the will of all (the mere collection of particu-
lar wills in pluralistic society). So, for example with
respect to social health-care policy, an individual’s par-
ticular will might be high-quality medical care for one-
self at no cost; the will of all may be the majority
getting good care at moderate cost, but the general will
would be a system of health care which the entire soci-120 general will
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.(LIBRARYOFCONGRESS)