132 Hamilton, Alexander
individuals represent states of affairs to one another
through utterances, establish interpersonal relation-
ships based on the mutual recognition of their utter-
ances, and interpret and modify the social system in
which they are immersed.
The theory of communicative action was then
used by Habermas to formulate his theory of dis-
course ethics. Like many theories of JUSTICE, dis-
course ethics focuses on questions of the right and
the good and on how ethical norms can be justified
through a procedure of moral argumentation and rea-
soned agreement. The goal for Habermas is to allow
for undistorted communication between all partici-
pants in a practical discourse so that understanding
of, and agreement on, valid norms can occur. Social
systems that do not provide public, participatory
access to norm formation and the creation of consen-
sus through communicative action thereby restrict
the potential for individual and societal emancipa-
tion. In his most recent writings, Habermas extends
his theory of discourse ethics into an account of what
he calls deliberative politics. Habermas insists that
genuine DEMOCRACYmust consist of, and encourage,
public processes of communicative action. In other
words, democracy can only function within a consti-
tutional framework that guarantees the equal RIGHTS
of political participation throughout the public
sphere. Democratic governments thus have an obliga-
tion to develop the social, legal, and political institu-
tions necessary for individuals to interact freely in
pluralistic societies.
Further Reading
Outhwaite, W. Habermas: A Critical Introduction. Stanford,
Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1994.
Hamilton, Alexander (1755–1804) U.S. states-
man and political philosopher
A leading FEDERALISTin the early American REPUBLIC,
Hamilton served as an officer in Gen. Washington’s
army during the Revolutionary War, as a delegate to
the Constitutional Convention, and as the secretary
of the treasury in President Washington’s administra-
tion. He wrote a majority of The FEDERALIST PAPERS,
arguing for ratification of the new U.S. CONSTITUTION
and providing the authoritative exposition of the new
federal system of U.S. government. As a proponent of
a powerful central government (contrary to STATES
RIGHTS), a strong executive, and public support of
industrial CAPITALISM, Hamilton and other “high fed-
eralists” became the political opponents of Thomas
JEFFERSONand the agrarian democrats.
Hamilton expressed a pessimistic view of hu-
man beings as selfish and petty. Ambition and
enlightened self-interest could lead people to care
about greater things, so acquisition of wealth and
fame are noble. A political system that encouraged
and rewarded prosperity and notoriety was the best,
in his view. Most common people are unable to strive
for anything above their personal desires, so DEMOC-
RACY should be checked by aristocratic institutions
that attract the better sorts of people into govern-
ment. Consequently, Hamilton favored the U.S. con-
stitutional provisions for a strong executive and
SUPREME COURT, as well as a powerful Senate. A power-
ful national government would also aid in creating a
wealthy country through commerce and a strong mili-
tary to protect and expand the national interest.
Hamilton admired the British IMPERIALISM, and he
hoped to replicate those institutions in the United
States. He believed in NATURAL RIGHTS, but after David
HUMEand William BLACKSTONE, Hamilton maintained
that state power is necessary to secure individual
RIGHTS. He often referred to this healthy, strong gov-
ernment as “energy in the executive.” Those fearing
TYRANNYfrom the federal government (see ANTIFEDER-
ALISTS) resisted Hamilton’s nationalism. Thomas Jef-
ferson wished to keep most state power decentralized
and limited, reserving the national regime for interna-
tional affairs.
This led to a conflict over early interpretations of
the U.S. Constitution. Hamilton and the federalists
wanted “expansive implied powers” for the central gov-
ernment; Jefferson favored limited “strict construction”
of specifically enumerated national powers. Through
the Supreme Court’s Hamiltonian interpretation of
Constitutional FEDERALISM under John MARSHALL, the
federal government has assumed more authority
throughout U.S. history. So, although the United States
is culturally a Jeffersonian democracy, both economi-
cally and politically it has taken the road of Hamilton.
Hamilton was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr.Further Readings
Kenyon, C. “Alexander Hamilton: Rousseau of the Right,” Polit-
ical Science Quarterly73 (June 1958): 161–178.
Miller, J. C. Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox.New York:
Harper, 1959.