Christian polity based on universal truth, while the
separate kingdoms (e.g., in Germany) based law and
principles on kinship, regional loyalty, and custom. By
the ninth century, the church had developed the “Two
Swords” doctrine, with the spiritual realm (superior)
ruling the temporal (inferior) through the papacy
and emperor (as in CHARLEMAGNE). The cooperation be-
tween these two realms helped to spread a uniform
Christian civilization through education, a shared
church liturgy, and recognized administration of eccle-
siastical and governmental systems.
With the death of Charlemagne, Europe again was
torn by localized strife (and Viking invasions) that
diminished the power of the central church and the
empire. Local princes resumed autonomous power,
and local religious corporations (monasteries) elected
their own leaders.
By the 12th century, Rome reasserted authority
through universal CANON LAWin Europe. Revived CLAS-
SICAL(ARISTOTLE) studies affected the Catholic Church
in the theories of St. Thomas AQUINAS. Basing authority
on a series of laws (divine, natural, and human)
Thomist political philosophy became more RATIONALis-
tic and HIERARCHICAL. Still, GUILDSand town emerged
with independent structures and CONCILIARISM advo-
cated a more DEMOCRATICstructure for church gover-
nance. JOHN OF SALISBURY and MARSILIUS OF PADUA
formulated early Modern notions of popular sover-
eignty and representative government.
The 13th-century popes Innocent III and Gregory
IX claimed power to resolve disputes between Euro-
pean monarchies, and by the 14th century, the papacy
was explicitly identifying itself as the vicar of Christ
on earth. JOHN OF PARIS challenged this papal
supremacy, and other REPUBLICANmovements predated
the final break with the Catholic Church in the Protes-
tant reformations of John CALVINand Martin LUTHER.
It is easy to see the conflicts and assertions of
power in Medieval politics and political thought as
self-interested claims. Although ambition and pride
often motivated these combatants, most deputes were
genuine concerns over justice, right, and responsibility
to God and people. The Medieval church genuinely
believed that it was best for Europe to have a uniform
creed and governance.
Further Readings
Lambton, Ann Katharine Swynford. State and Government in
Medieval Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Islamic Politi-
cal Theory: The Jurists.Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University
Press, 1981.
Milson, S.F.C. The Legal Framework of English Feudalism(the
Maitland lectures, 1972). Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge
University Press, 1976.
Nederman, Cary J., and Forhan, Kate Langdon, eds. Medieval
Political Theory: A Reader: The Quest for the Body Politic,
1100–1400. London: Routledge, 1993.Menshevick
The majority political party of the Russian COMMUNISTS
that broke with LENINand the BOLSHEVIKS. Menshevicks
advocated a more open DEMOCRATICparty against the
more exclusive, militant democratic-centralism of the
Bolsheviks.Mercantilism
An economic system in Europe in the 1600–1700s that
relied on foreign trade, protection of domestic INDUS-
TRY (protectionism), government monopolies, and
banking. The main mercantilist principle was that a
nation’s wealth will increase by a favorable balance of
trade (importing fewer goods than exporting). The
British EMPIREof the 18th century did this by import-
ing cheap raw materials (like cotton) from the colonies
(North America, India, Egypt) and exporting expen-
sive manufactured goods (cloth, pottery, etc.). The
government supported this policy with restrictive
trade laws (e.g., British Navigation Acts) that punished
unregulated or free trade. The Dutch, French, and Ger-
man governments also adopted this policy at times
(leading to European trade wars). Adam SMITHcriti-
cized mercantilism and advanced the thesis that free
trade would actually be more productive and create
more prosperity.Further Readings
Gomes, Leonard. Foreign Trade and the National Economy: Mer-
cantilist and Classical Perspectives.New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1987.
Heckscher, E. Mercantilism.London: Allen & Unwin, 1935.Michels, Robert (1876–1936) Italian political
sociologist
Robert Michels was a noted Italian political economist
and sociologist whose development of the “iron law of
oligarchy” reflected the trend by other academics in
the early 1900s to support the trend toward AUTHORI-206 Menshevick