virtue of military honor in FEUDAL monarchies. But
republics also enforce a dangerous kind of conformity
and can stifle individual creativity and excellence.
Also, Montesquieu asserted that a republic could not
exist in a large country (which the U.S. FEDERALISMof
Madison and Jefferson directly disputed) and so was
confined to small states.
Montesquieu’s emphasis on the “spirit” or culture
of a nation’s laws make him an early example of the
sociological or anthropological approach to politics.
Rather than the abstract principles of Lockean liberal-
ism or MARXISM, his theory holds that a country’s cus-
toms, religion, traditions, climate, size, and economy
greatly affect its politics. ROUSSEAUlater employed the
view to explain why authoritarian Russia could not
become democratic under Peter the Great. Britain’s
“spirit of commerce” (a peaceful, disciplined acquisi-
tion of PROPERTYand respect for LIBERTY) makes it an
ideal prosperous republic.
This Modern, liberal, capitalist, republican ideal
contrasted with Montesquieu’s own France of monar-
chy and feudalism and caused him to lose favor in his
own country. But he was celebrated as a noble and
great political thinker throughout Europe and America
in the 18th century.
His minor works include The Persian Letters,a satire
of medieval Western values of CATHOLICISMand Aris-
totelian NATURAL LAWand informed by John LOCKE, SPIN-
OZA, and Bayle. His Consideration on the Causes of the
Greatness of the Romans and Their Decline (1734)
addresses MACHIAVELLI’s REALISM and concludes that
ancient pagan Rome was not representative of human
evil, but rather was a perversion of humanity character-
istic of degenerate republics. He does not embrace a
CHRISTIANor CLASSICALGreek view of human moral and
ethical capacities, but sees humans as animals with very
limited intelligence, filled with desires and anxieties,
longing for satisfaction, peace, and security. Unless this
rather pathetic creature is directed to constructive activ-
ity of an economic sort (commercialism), he or she will
become violent and destructive. Hence, Montesquieu’s
appreciation for the English—a peaceable, sturdy,
republican people with limited, MODERATE, commercial
and political aims. This British (and soon U.S.) MODER-
NITYis a standard for forward-looking diplomats and
founders of governments. As Montesquieu proclaims in
a famous quote: “The Greek political thinkers knew of
no other power that could sustain popular government
except that of VIRTUE; today we hear only of manufac-
tures, commerce, finance, riches, and even luxury.”
Consequently, he greatly influenced the ENLIGHTENMENT
and Modern republics.Further Readings
Pangle, T. L. Montesquieu’s Philosophy of Liberalism: A Commen-
tary on “The Spirit of the Laws.”Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1973.
Shackleton, R. Montesquieu: A Critical Biography. London:
Oxford University Press, 1961.Moral Majority
A CONSERVATIVEpolitical group of the CHRISTIAN RIGHT
in the United States. Founded in 1979 by BAPTIST
leader Jerry Falwell, the Moral Majority championed
RIGHT-wing causes (anticommunism and secular
HUMANISM; profamily; prodefense; antipornography,
antiabortion, pro-PRAYER IN SCHOOL, etc.). Representing
about four million members (primarily white, funda-
mentalist Protestant Christians) the Moral Majority
attacked LIBERAL, FEMINIST, HOMOSEXUAL, and social wel-
fare policies in the U.S. government, media, schools,
and business. Strong defenders of CAPITALISM, strict
laws against crime (including capital punishment),
and support for Israel, the Major Majority was largely
ridiculed by the media, higher education, and the DEM-
OCRATIC PARTY. It was more accepted by the U.S. REPUB-
LICAN PARTY (especially under President Ronald
REAGAN) and grass-roots conservatives. It registered an
estimated three million new voters (among poor
Southern whites primarily), but had negligible effects
on presidential elections. With headquarters in Wash-
ington, D.C., it tried to influence national policy
towards more TRADITIONALJudeo-Christian values and
conservative economics. Having achieved its goal of
establishing the Religious Right in the public arena, its
founders dissolved the Moral Majority in 1989. Its
work is continued by many other conservative Christ-
ian policy organizations, like the Christian Coalition.moral sense
The idea that humans have a “moral” sense (the physi-
cal senses of sight, hearing, taste, etc.) that naturally
tells them what is good and how to do it. Associated
with the SCOTTISH ENLIGHTENMENTthinkers (1740–90)
Frances Hutcheson, Lord Kames, and Thomas Reid,
this moral-sense philosophy affected American
Thomas JEFFERSON’s political theory. Generally with LIB-
ERAL, optimistic tendencies, the idea that people had a212 Moral Majority