Administration (AAA), the Civilian Conservation
Corps (CCC), and so on. The CONSERVATIVE U.S.
Supreme Court declared most of these New Deal pro-
grams unconstitutional as granting the federal govern-
ment excessive power, violating PROPERTYand contract
rights, and giving the executive branch too much
AUTHORITY. U.S. conservatives (especially business) saw
the liberal New Deal as quasi-SOCIALIST(state-owned
and -planned economy). Radical LEFTISTSaccused it of
being FASCISM (state control of capitalist property).
Most historians later saw it as a compromise solution,
developing a mixed economy of capitalism with exten-
sive government regulation for the common good.
Relying on Keynesian economic theories, the New
Deal did not completely end the economic Depression,
but it addressed the most severe symptoms (starvation,
homelessness), which probably prevented extreme
political results (like NAZISMin Germany and COMMU-
NISMin Russia).
Debate over the wisdom and effectiveness of the
New Deal liberalism continue, but most of its general
features (such as Social Security) are widely accepted
in the United States and other Western democracies.
New Left
As opposed to the “Old Left” (early 1900s MARXISTS,
COMMUNISTS, and SOCIALISTSassociated with orthodox
Soviet thinkers), the “New Left” consisted most of
intellectual Marxists and Liberals in the 1960s and
1970s. Like CRITICAL-THEORYfigures Herbert MARCUSE
and Max HORKHEIMER, most New Left thinkers focused
less on economic issues (class struggle) and more on
the cultural, social, and sexual aspects of CAPITALIST
oppression. They greatly affected university academic
life, the media, religion, and the arts in the United
States and Western Europe. Though declining in influ-
ence since the CONSERVATIVErevival in the 1980s and
1990s, the New Left ideology persists in the “POLITI-
CALLY CORRECT” movement, ENVIRONMENTALISM, and the
liberal wing of the U.S. DEMOCRATIC PARTY. A continuing
theme of the New Left was to attack most AUTHORITY
(in schools, government, family, and business) as
“domination” and to “liberate” all oppressed individu-
als and groups (the poor, minorities, workers, women,
gays, lesbians, transsexuals, and animals). Members of
the New Left universally opposed the Vietnam War
(being actively involved in the peace movement), but
they disagreed on positive social strategy (from WEL-
FARE-STATEliberalism to socialism, communism, and
ANARCHISM). From the height of its influence in U.S.
politics (with the Democratic Party nomination of
George McGovern), it has declined as both political
parties have become more MODERATE.Further Reading
Long, P. The New Left.Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969.New Right
A political group and IDEOLOGYin the United States
and Britain in the 1980s and 1990s, associated with
President Ronald REAGAN in the United States and
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in Great Britain.
This “New Right” applies the ideals of the “Old Right”
of the 19th century, LAISSEZ-FAIRE CONSERVATISM(free-
market CAPITALISM, limited government regulation of
business, lower taxes, increased military spending).
Sometimes call neo-Conservatives (such as William
BENNETT, William F. BUCKLEY), these New Right
thinkers also advocate traditional morality, discipline,
authority, and religion, linking them politically with
the CHRISTIAN RIGHT(Marion “Pat” ROBERTSON). Besides
being a prominent presence in the U.S. REPUBLICAN
PARTY, the New Right exercises influence in various
conservative institutes (such as the American Enter-
prise Institute) and conservative media (such as CBN,
the Washington Times,and radio commentators Rush
Limbaugh and Oliver North). Although partly respon-
sible for the Conservative shift in national politics in
the United States and Britain, the New Right has not
been able to dominate the prevailing MODERATEpolitics
of either political party.Further Reading
Levita, R., ed. The Ideology of the New Right.Oxford, Eng.:
Blackwell Publishers, 1986.Newman, John Henry (Cardinal) (1801–1890)
British churchman and leader of the Oxford Movement
Raised in an EVANGELICALenvironment associated with
parliamentary DEMOCRACY(as in the PURITANS, Oliver
CROMWELL), Newman became a great exponent for the
Anglo CATHOLICOxford Movement (usually associated
with European MONARCHYand FEUDALISM). This ecclesi-
astical/political transformation occurred over many
years, but it greatly affected (and reflected) British andNewman, John Henry (Cardinal) 219