particular point of view. Nevertheless, Nietzsche did
not adhere to a simple relativism that all interpreta-
tions are equally good. Even though knowledge is the
product of certain interpretations of reality, Nietzsche
argued that some points of view or interpretations are
more valuable than others. In particular, those inter-
pretations that promote what Nietzsche called the will
to power—the universal venting of life and the basic
drive of individuals to control their own intentions
and actions—have more value for human existence
than interpretations that inhibit will to power. In Niet-
zsche’s view, values reflect the different capabilities of
individuals to exert their force or power toward some
goal, expressed in different moral codes.
Nietzsche argued that Christian morality represents
a “slave” or “herd” morality that is destroying the
health and strength of humanity in general and of
noble persons or “free spirits” in particular. Noble
types exhibit a “master” morality that celebrates pow-
erful, aristocratic individuals and the virtues of
strength, courage, individuality, and risk-taking; slave
morality, however, esteems the common person and
the virtues of humility, meekness, self-denial, and pru-
dence. Master morality is characterized by the act of
self-affirmation, and slave morality is characterized by
the act of other-negation, driven by resentment of the
free and powerful. Parts of NAZI IDEOLOGYwere thought
to be influenced by the ideas of will to power and mas-
ter morality. Historically, Nietzsche suggested, slave
morality has become the dominant value system with
the result that society now valorizes sameness and
obedience and condemns difference and independ-
ence.
Nietzsche therefore believed that Christian morality
takes on a secular form in the leveling ideologies of
EGALITARIANISMand DEMOCRACY. He contended that the
modern notions of equal worth and equal rights are
signs of mass weakness, generated by fear of naturally
superior individuals. Modern democratic societies, he
believed, have developed out of the triumph of slave
morality in its struggle against the master morality.
According to Nietzsche’s metaphysics, however, the
struggle of the common person against the aristocratic
person is also a struggle against life itself. For Niet-
zsche, inequality is an inherent phenomenon of life,
and inequality should be allowed to thrive between
humans because some are superior and others are infe-
rior. In Nietzsche’s view, the democratic denial of
inequality has led to a progressive degeneration of
human excellence. In response, Nietzsche recom-
mended the disciplined pursuit of an individual self-
creation that transcended the norms of conventional
morality.Further Reading
Ansell-Pearson, K. An Introduction to Nietzsche as a Political
Thinker. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press,
1994.Nixon, Richard Milhous (1913–1994) U.S.
president and politician
A CONSERVATIVEmember of the REPUBLICAN PARTY. Nixon
was known for his fervent antiCOMMUNISM in the
1950s. As U.S. president (1969–74), however, Nixon
displayed MODERATEpositions on economic and civil
rights issues. He normalized diplomatic relations with
(communist) China and reduced tensions with the
SOVIET UNION.
Unfortunately, Nixon’s long public career is prima-
rily remembered for “Watergate”—an incident of polit-
ical corruption and abuse of power that led to his
resigning as president (the only presidential resigna-Nixon, Richard Milhous 221Richard M. Nixon.(LIBRARY OFCONGRESS)