est. A condition or place in society brings responsibili-
ties or obligations with it. FREEDOMis balanced by duty,
responsibility, and obligation in much of Western
political thought.
Further Readings
Flathman, R. Political Obligation.New York: Atheneum, 1972.
Green, T. H. Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation.
London: Longmans, 1882, 1966.
orthodoxy
Literally, “true doctrine.” In political thought, the vari-
ous theories or systems that claimed to be the one true
interpretation or institution, for example, the Eastern
Orthodox Church of Christianity (Greek Orthodox;
Russian Orthodox) that split from the Western
(CATHOLIC) Church and still claim to represent the one
true faith. Consequently, the Orthodox churches often
align themselves with the STAT E, becoming the official
government church, and persecute other CHRISTIAN
churches (denying FREEDOMof religion or LIBERTYof
conscience).
Another common reference for the term orthodoxis
orthodox MARXISM.This refers to the Russian or Soviet
communist view of the ideas of Karl MARX, and the
SOCIALIST system established in the SOVIET UNION
(1917–87). So, orthodox COMMUNISMor Soviet orthodoxy
means the emphasis in MARXISM-LENINISMon economic
determinism and class conflict, violent revolution, the
dictatorship of the proletariat, a bureaucratic central
government, secret police, etc. Sometimes this is con-
nected with the Soviet dictator Joseph STALINor Stalin-
ism. Later, Western Marxism (CRITICAL THEORY)
rejected this authoritarian orthodox Marxism for more
DEMOCRATICsocialism.
Owen, Robert (1771–1853) British utopian so-
cialist
As a cotton-mill owner in New Lanark, England,
Owen experimented with SOCIALISTcommunity ideas.
He argued that social ills (ignorance, poverty, crime)
were due to environmental factors (slums, overwork,
lack of education) and could be cured through healthy
DEMOCRATIC, EGALITARIANcommunities. Through highly
controlled education, economics, and politics, all
social problems could be cured. Owen saw his planned
socialist experiments as more rational than the prevail-
ing Victorian English social, religious, and economic
system. The three great barriers to progress for Owen
were religion, marriage, and private PROPERTY.He
attacked the church for promoting superstition and an
unjust view of human nature (as sinful). Still, he saw
his socialist communities as ushering in the “Second
Coming of Christ,” an early expression of SOCIAL-
GOSPELand LIBERATION-THEOLOGYviews.
Unlike MARXISTcommunism, Owen preferred small
agricultural communes, maintaining that a population
of 1,000 to 2,000 people on 600 to 1,800 acres of land
was ideal. He saw INDUSTRIALISMas increasing wealth
but suspected that it would devalue work. Like French
utopian socialist Charles FOURIER, he remained an
agrarian thinker. Money also was suspect, as true
socialism would involve exchange of goods and labor
according to need. This positive view of human nature
and economic development formed the basis of later
sociology, but it remains contrary to free-market CAPI-
TALIST ideas of individual self-interest, competition,
and economic growth.
Owen started a utopian socialist community in the
United States (New Harmony, Indiana) that was posi-
tively received by Thomas JEFFERSONbut viewed with
skepticism by James MADISON(because of his Calvinist
Christian view of people’s innate sinful selfish nature).
Although ridiculed by both radical communists and
liberal CONSERVATIVES as impractical, Owen had a
tremendous effect on progressive British politics
(toward democracy, public education, trade unionism,
health care, and economic EQUALITY). He is remem-
bered as a kinder, gentler socialist than MARX, ENGELS,
or LENIN.Further Reading
Pollard, S., and Salt, J., eds. Robert Owen—Prophet of the Poor.
Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1971.224 orthodoxy