P

pacifism
The belief that all war is wrong and that only peaceful
means of resolving conflicts (rational discussion,
mediation, prayer) are morally legitimate. Pacifists
assert that participation in the military and war is
wrong, even if their own country is threatened (i.e.,
self-defense) or if war is waged to protect innocent vic-
tims of aggression. Most pacifism is based in religious
convictions, but some comes out of HUMANISTor eco-
nomic considerations.
The origin of pacifism is CHRISTIANITY, especially the
Judeo-Christian commandment against murder and
Christ’s injunction to “resist not evil.” Early in church
history, many Christians refused to serve in the impe-
rial Roman armies, causing widespread persecution of
Christians as “unpatriotic.” The CATHOLICteaching that
God’s family crosses national boundaries proscribed
killing one’s “brothers” in warfare. This pacifist Chris-
tianity eventually evolved into JUST-WAR DOCTRINE,
allowing the faithful to engage in war to defend one-
self, protect the innocent, and as a last resort (after
negotiations). Many Christian groups still adhere to
pacifist positions, however (notably, Quakers, Men-
nonites, and Jehovah’s Witnesses), all of whom prac-
tice CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTIONby refusing to serve in
the military. This is permitted in the United States, but

several other countries jail pacifists for refusing mili-

tary service.

During the Middle Ages, the code of chivalry and

military honor discouraged pacifism, even during the

Crusades. Some Renaissance thinkers, such as ERAS-

MUS, criticized the barbaric side of war, attacking its

MEDIEVAL glorification. ENLIGHTENMENT LIBERALISM be-

lieved that DEMOCRACY, human reason, and economic

FREEDOMwould eliminate war. After the Napoleonic

Wars (1814), several peace treaties ensured European

order until World War I. The 20th-century wars

destroyed any illusions of human PROGRESSaway from

violence. Still, pacifist movements developed, espe-

cially against nuclear weapons and against the Vietnam

War. Certain ideologies were inherently pacifist, at

least in theory. MARXIST-LENINIST COMMUNISMopposed

“CAPITALISTimperialist” wars, and some working class

groups refused military service. ANARCHISM opposed

most wars but not all violent revolution. Leo Tolstoy,

Mohandas GANDHI, and Martin Luther KING, Jr., advo-

cated nonviolent resistance to social injustice. Some

pacifists now oppose nationalistic wars but accept mil-

itary action by international organizations (such as the

United Nations). Most pacifists believe that violence

and war as means lead to destructive ends, and there-

fore military force is ineffective. Reinhold NIEBUHRdis-

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