divert their thoughts from death and the ultimate pur-
pose of life. This attack on the rationalistic, scientific
worldview and retreat to individual responsibility and
knowledge of God reappears in religious EXISTENTIAL-
ISM(as in KIERKEGAARD). Pascal is also an early DIALEC-
TICALthinker, as when he shows that the Holy Spirit is
both a convictor of sin and comforter of the sinner
(and that without the former, pride would dominate,
but without the latter, despair would ruin). He remains
one of the most profound and fascinating thinkers in
the Western TRADITION.
Further Reading
Mesnard, J. Pascal: His Life and Works.New York: Philosophical
Library, 1952.
paternalism
Traditionally, paternalism means the rule (governance)
and care of a father or fatherlike person or institution.
In Western political thought, this appears in ARISTO-
TLE’s ideal of a DEMOCRATIC POLISof heads of house-
holds and, therefore, a “paternalistic” Greek culture
generally. The Roman emperor assumes this paternal
role, as does the CATHOLICChurch’s pope in the MIDDLE
AGES. Medieval European culture generally is paternal-
istic, or ruled by senior male figures (king, lord, GUILD
master, priest, family father). The biblical basis of the
patriarchal order is Adam’s headship over Eve, Moses’
fatherhood over the Hebrew people, and other kings
and patriarchs of Israel. The authority of this paternal-
istic view of God (as “Father”) then extends to reli-
gious and civil organizations (see St. Thomas AQUINAS).
It conveys both a strict and a loving patriarch, requir-
ing respect and obedience, but providing care and pro-
tection. This hierarchical view of society (see FILMER)
is challenged by the EGALITARIAN MODERN DEMOCRATIC
perspective of John LOCKE, MARXISM, and FEMINISM.In
contemporary political thought, the concept of a supe-
rior male role is almost nonexistent.
Paternalism, then, in contemporary thought takes
on the meaning of a secular state that treats citizens
like children by enforcing laws that protect individuals
from dangerous influences or themselves and provide
for their economic, social, and even emotional needs.
So, SOCIALISMis sometimes called paternalistic because
it provides for the material needs of citizens “from
cradle to grave.” Social-welfare legislation (school lun-
ches, social security, etc.) is sometimes considered
paternalistic or the Father (or Mother) State—treating
adults as helpless children. Laws protecting individu-
als from harmful substances (tobacco, drugs, alcohol)
or “consumer safety laws” (auto seatbelts, regulation
of food production, etc.) are sometimes criticized as
paternalistic. Particularly CONSERVATIVE, LIBERTARIAN,
and ANARCHISTthinkers (such as Robert NOZICK) resent
government control of individual freedom and choice
in the name of safety or morality. So, LEFTISTpolitics
tend to be more favorably disposed to paternalism in
government, while RIGHT-WING IDEOLOGYis often more
critical of political paternalism.Further Reading
Sartorius, R., ed. Paternalism.Minneapolis: University of Min-
nesota Press, 1983.patriarchal/patriarchalism
The theory or doctrine that political AUTHORITY(such
as that of a king) is premised in the role and power of
the father in a traditional family structure. The philo-
sophical basis of this is the Judeo-CHRISTIANreligion
with its view of God as a “father”; the origin of
humanity in a male person (Adam); the rule of God’s
people Israel in prominent men (Moses, Noah, King
David, Jesus, Paul); and the early church rule by popes
(papa) and bishops. Also, in the CLASSICALtradition,
ARISTOTLE’s anthropological genesis of politics (in
household, village, and POLIS) situates primary author-
ity in the male husband/father, which then forms the
all-male citizenry. In both of these traditions, the polit-
ical rule of men follows a “natural” role and capacity
(given by God or NATURAL LAW) and therefore is best.
In the MIDDLE AGES, this produces a view of the realm
(such as England) or the empire (under CHARLEMAGNE)
as a family, with the king or emperor as the father of
the whole country. This leads to a HIERARCHYin which
all adult subjects are children and the government is a
kind of parent. Like paternalism, this usually involved
a strict ABSOLUTISTrule combined with a benevolent,
protective fatherhood.
Sir Robert FILMERarticulates this MEDIEVALview of
king-as-father at the close of the Middle Ages in his
book Patriarcha(1680). The Modern, SOCIAL-CONTRACT
LIBERALISM of John LOCKEchallenged this patriarchic
view with an image of all humans as equal and inde-
pendent adults. This EGALITARIAN perspective (the
equality of men and women) flows into the contempo-
rary concept of the patriarchal societyas male-domi-
nated and oppressive. FEMINISTviews of the inequality228 paternalism