Patronage is still regarded as ineffective, corrupt,
and unresponsive government employment, but its
supporters consider it an appropriate reward for party
or leader loyalty and friendship and a necessary ingre-
dient in MODERNgovernment.
Penn, William (1644–1718) English Quaker,
political and religious thinker, and founder of Pennsyl-
vania
Son of an English aristocrat, Penn was educated at
Christ Church (college), Oxford, and studied law at
Lincoln’s Inn, London. At age 22, he became a Quaker
CHRISTIAN, which, because of that sect’s belief in reli-
gious FREEDOM, DEMOCRACY, and direct revelation from
the Holy Spirit, caused him to be persecuted and
imprisoned.
In 1680, the king of England paid a debt owed
Penn’s father in land in North America (now the state
of Pennsylvania), giving Penn virtual control over the
colony. He wrote a highly democratic CONSTITUTIONfor
Pennsylvania, emphasizing religious LIBERTYand Chris-
tian morality. Quakers and other persecuted Protes-
tants flocked to the colony from England and Europe.
Philadelphia, the chief city in Pennsylvania, became a
model Christian community, with clean, orderly, and
prosperous streets and citizens. The REPUBLICANpoliti-
cal principles and religious FREEDOMof Pennsylvania
became a model for other U.S. states and the U.S. Con-
stitution. Voluntary liberty of conscience and demo-
cratic government was proven in Pennsylvania.
Benjamin FRANKLINgrew up in Philadelphia, and the
Pennsylvania system greatly impressed James MADISON.
Most North American settlements had hostile relations
with the Native Americans (Indians), but William
Penn’s just and peaceful policies resulted in good rela-
tions with the Pennsylvanian Native peoples.
Penn’s main writing include No Cross, No Crown
(1668)—on his religious beliefs—and Essay Towards
the Present and Future Peace of Europe (1693)—on
international politics.
philosopher-king
The term used by PLATOin his Republicto describe the
ideal rulers. It conveys the combination of wisdom and
power in government. This ideal of wise political
leadership continues throughout Western political
thought, including in Thomas JEFFERSON’s conception
of a naturalARISTOCRACYof wisdom and goodness in
America.
Plato conceived of certain people being by nature
(born) to be such wise and virtuous rulers. This natu-
ral capacity for knowledge and morals, however,
required strict training and cultivation by the society’s
educational system. Intellectual discipline was espe-
cially important for the naturally gifted to develop into
effective rulers, but once they were educated, these
philosopher-kings (who could be either men or
women) would foster the most just, peaceful, and vir-
tuous society. Their unique VIRTUEwas the knowledge
of other peoples’ virtues (the courage and honor of the
military class, and the moderation of the business
class). If such philosophers did not govern, some other
class (soldiers or workers) would rule society, impose
their own narrow virtues on the whole country, and
cause injustice and national disaster.
Plato’s CLASSICAL ideal of philosopher-kings is
thought to have influenced the Hindu hierarchy in
India; the ideal CHRISTIANknight in the European MID-
DLE AGES; and even MODERNideas of superior leaders in
DEMOCRACY. Its hereditary qualities make Plato’s con-
cept less compatible with EGALITARIANideology, but it
continues to influence most political thought.physiocracy
The physiocratic school of political economy was
founded by François QUESNAY. His most prominent
work Tableau Économique(Economic Table) was com-
pleted in 1758. The first English translation in 1766
described the field as:
Political economy is the study of the natural laws gov-
erning the production and distribution of wealth. In
their systematic analysis of the process and their empha-
sis on the ordre naturel, the physiocrats merit the dis-
tinction of being the founders of political economy. The
Impot Unique remains to be implemented as does their
legacy of free trade and free markets.
Because for Quesnay the basis of the social order lay in
the economic order, an understanding of the laws and
regularities governing economic life appeared to be of
primary necessity if the sickness of society was to be
cured. In short, by modifying economic realities, one
could address social and political ills. Physiocrats
assumed that the system of market exchange was sub-
ject to certain objective economic laws. Furthermore,
these laws operated independently of human will.230 Penn, William