to studying politics, founded in the philosophical mate-
rialism of Thomas HOBBES. This perspective attempted
to apply the methodology of empirical natural science
to the study of society and politics. That scientific
method emphasized observing material data, quantita-
tive (mathematical) analysis of information, and com-
pilation of facts. It claimed to be value-neutral, to
describe phenomena simply (political systems, social
change, governmental policy), without judging their
goodness or morality. This separation of fact and value,
or value-free politics, was later criticized as sterile and
irrelevant to real political issues and problems.
Political science is taught as a major field in most
U.S. colleges and universities. It contains several sub-
fields that examine different aspects of politics: Ameri-
can politics, international politics, comparative
politics, public law, political economy, and political
theory. Graduates majoring in political science often
pursue careers in law, government, or business. In the
United States, political science is a popular major for
university students who plan to attend law school.
Further Readings
Crick, B. The American Science of Politics.Westpor t, Conn.:
Greenwood Press, 1959.
Somit, A., and Tanenhaus, J. The Development of American Politi-
cal Science.Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1967.
political theory
The academic study (in colleges and university) of the
theories or philosophies of politics. As a branch (and
foundation) of the academic field of POLITICAL SCIENCE,
political theory tends to be a more abstract and general
study of politics than the specific subfields of interna-
tional politics, comparative politics, political economy,
American politics, state and local politics, public law,
and so on that study particular systems, institutions,
and relations of politics.
Most political-theory study is historical, examining
the great thinkers of the past (PLATO, ARISTOTLE, CICERO,
St. AUGUSTINE, St. Thomas AQUINAS, MACHIAVELLI, John
LOCKE, Karl MARX, etc.) and their ideals or concepts—
JUSTICE, FREEDOM, DEMOCRACY, RIGHTS, LIBERTY, VIRTUE,
and so on. More contemporary political theory applies
these normative (or value-driven) concepts to current
issues in present-day society. So, 20th-century political
theorists Leo STRAUSS, John RAWLS, Robert NOZICK,
Thomas PANGLE, Cary MCWILLIAMS, and Benjamin BAR-
BERcontinue the CLASSICALapproach to political theory.
Political theory after the ancient Greek philosopher,
SOCRATES, asks the perennial questions of HUMAN
NATUREand politics: What is humanity? How should
society and government be organized? What is justice?
and so on. Although abstract and IDEALISTIC, this theo-
retical approach to politics informs and influences
practical politics. Current world politics are arguably
the result of past political theories (British LIBERALISM,
MARXIST COMMUNISM, ISLAMICthought, CATHOLIC CHRIS-
TIANpolitical theory, Calvinism, etc.), so a premise of
political theory is that ideas matter and affect the rest
of life.Further Readings
Sheldon, Garrett Ward. The History of Political Theory.New
York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1988.
Miller, D., and Siedentop, L., eds. The Nature of Political Theory.
Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1983.
Strauss, L. Natural Right and History.Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1953.politically correct (p.c.)
Having the correct political or IDEOLOGICALviews and
attitudes according to some party, group, or slant.
Originally used in Stalinist Russia to infer adherence to
the accepted COMMUNISTparty line or position.
The term politically correct was revived in the
United States in the 1990s to describe Liberal or LEFT-
ISTattempts to express their political attitudes on soci-
ety and education.Polybius (approx. 200–118 B.C.) Greek/Roman
historian and political philosopher
Known principally for his book Histories,Polybius
provides a valuable history of the Roman Republic and
EMPIRE, its political system and a theory of the life
cycles of a state. Raised in the Achaean League of the
southern Greek peninsula, Polybius served as a minor
military and political official. When his nation
opposed the Roman conquest of Macedonia, he was
arrested and interned in Italy. There, his intellectual
acumen won him favor with the ruling Roman elite.
He further impressed his captors by writing an exten-
sive and favorable history of the expansion of Rome
from the taking of Sicily in 264 B.C. to the conquest of
Carthage in 146 B.C. With his knowledge of ancient
Greek, CLASSICAL philosophy (PLATO and ARISTOTLE),
Polybius traced the ideas of government to the RomanPolybius 235