Protestant CHRISTIANS, adapting the faith to CAPITALISM,
REPUBLICANISM, and science. The PRESBYTERIANview of
humanity and history informed much of the Scots
Enlightenment, as it did AMERICAN POLITICAL THOUGHT.
For example, Reid’s commonsense theology, emphasiz-
ing the rational appreciation of scripture and human
MORAL SENSE, showed that scientific materialism and
DEMOCRACYare not incompatible with Christianity. In
economics, Adam Smith showed that the INDIVIDUALISM
and LIBERTYof Protestant Christianity could promote a
work ethic and material prosperity; that poverty and
misery were not divinely ordained, and free markets
could promote economic progress; that wealth was not
necessarily a sign of God’s grace, but neither was eco-
nomic privation and suffering; and that a self-disci-
plined moral individual could be religious, socially
beneficial, and politically responsible, improving the
country and humankind.
Politically, the Scots Enlightenment adapted the
Calvinist COVENANTtradition with NATURAL LAW, SOCIAL-
CONTRACTliberalism (John LOCKE) seeing the state as
promoting HUMAN RIGHTSand private PROPERTY. Smith
described the governments of different economic his-
toric systems (hunting, pastoral, agricultural, commer-
cial) and saw republicanism as serving both market
and political liberty: Material progress need not lead to
luxury and moral depravity (as in CLASSICAL REPUBLI-
CANISM) if it is undergirded by a sound Christian cul-
ture. Hume saw society developing from the family, a
need for national defense, and the security of property.
Adam Fergerson believed that without a moral dimen-
sion to capitalism, specialization could lead to
exploitation, and that classical VIRTUEwas inculcated
through a citizen militia.
Many of the ideas of the Scottish Enlightenment
found their way into the American political system
through the immigration of many Scots into North
America in the 18th century and through the popular-
ity of these Scots thinkers’ writings.
Further Reading
Campbell, R. H., and Skinner, A. S., eds. The Origins and Nature
of the Scottish Enlightenment.Amherst, Mass.: Prometheus
Books, 1982.
Second Great Awakening
A religious revival in the United States of America
from 1790 to 1860 that helped to spread a POPULIST,
DEMOCRATICculture across the American frontier. Like
the GREAT AWAKENING, this CHRISTIANrevival was led by
Protestant ministers speaking to large crowds of com-
mon people, often in rural areas or camp meetings.
The social effect of this EVANGELICALspread of Chris-
tianity was to reinforce the democratic, EGALITARIAN
culture and politics of the United States through infor-
mal language and church schedules; ordinary, unedu-
cated “lay” people (farmers, mechanics) becoming
gospel preachers and ministers; and local communities
building new churches across America. Although all
Christian churches participated in this growth of reli-
gion in the 19th-century United States, the BAPTISTand
Methodist denominations spread most rapidly. The use
of traveling revivalist ministers, indigenous democrati-
cally run congregations, and simple biblical teaching
allowed this Evangelical Christianity to move across
the expanding Western frontier easily.
Millions of converts to Protestant Christianity
resulted from the Second Great Awakening, exhibiting
reformed morals, self-control, a reduction of alco-
holism and crime, and increased family life and educa-
tion. The religious revivals empowered young
communities confidently to build schools, churches,
hospitals, libraries, parks, and organized civil life. His-
torian Gordon Wood claims that this religious expres-
sion effectively “Christianized” the United States and
made it the most evangelical nation on earth. Other
political effects of this Second Great Awakening were
the social reform movements around ABOLITIONISM,
(ending slavery), PROHIBITION(outlawing alcoholic bev-
erages), and eventually the SOCIAL GOSPEL MOVEMENT
(helping the urban poor and workers in INDUSTRIAL-
ISM). So, as both a social and a spiritual movement, the
Second Great Awakening changed the United States in
significant ways.Further Reading
Boles, J. B. The Great Revival.Lexington: University Press of
Kentucky, 1972.secularism
A philosophy or worldview that emphasizes worldly,
human (“secular”), as opposed to spiritual or reli-
gious, perspectives in explaining society and politics.
Often referred to as HUMANISM, a secular approach dis-
misses or ignores God, the divine, the supernatural,
and other religious viewpoints when discussing or par-
ticipating in politics. Examples of such secular
thought include the RENAISSANCE thinker Niccolosecularism 273