MACHIAVELLI; ENLIGHTENMENT thinker Jean-Jacques
ROUSSEAU; COMMUNIST thinkers Karl MARX, Friedrich
ENGELS, and V.I. LENIN; and contemporary COMMUNITAR-
IANBenjamin BARBER.
Often secular theorists draw from CLASSICALpoliti-
cal thought (PLATO, ARISTOTLE) and MODERN LEFTISTper-
spectives on HUMAN NATUREand politics. Emphasis is
placed on human excellence, potential, fulfillment,
“actualization,” and so on, instead of the godly, provi-
dential, or spiritual dimensions of life. Often, reason
and technology are extolled as the source of political
and ethical excellence; this contrasted with the major
Christian political theorists (St. AUGUSTINE, St. Thomas
AQUINAS, John CALVIN) who start from a godly, Bible,
church, spiritual perspective, depreciate the human
capacity for goodness or social improvement, and
advise humble appreciation of the REALISMof sin and of
looking to God for guidance and help in the world.
Contemporary expressions of secularism occur in
the mainstream liberal media, business, public educa-
tion, and social organizations. Criticism of secularism
comes primarily from the CHRISTIAN RIGHT, CATHOLIC,
and other CONSERVATIVEreligious groups and sections
of the dominant political parties (REPUBLICANand DEM-
OCRATIC). In CHURCH-AND-STATE matters, secularists
demand a strict separation of religion and politics,
keeping prayer and religious instruction out of govern-
ment, public schools, and other common institutions.
Sociologist James Davison HUNTERdescribes the differ-
ences in secular-sacred debates in his book, Culture
Wars.
Much of the criticism of the West (and of the
United States in particular) from the ISLAMICworld is
that it is too secular.
Seneca, L. Annaeus (4 B.C.–A.D. 65) Roman
statesman and political philosopher
Representing Roman CLASSICAL REPUBLICANISM, Seneca,
like CICERO, emphasizes the importance of moral
VIRTUEin rulers, the dangers of arbitrary AUTHORITARIAN
governance (especially TYRANNY), and the need for wis-
dom and PATRIOTISMin a government. Because of his
ridicule of autocratic, dictatorial emperors in the
Roman Empire, Seneca became a favorite author of the
MODERN LIBERALphilosophers (James HARRINGTON, John
LOCKE) who similarly attacked MONARCHY.
Seneca worked as an advisor to the notorious
Roman emperor Nero and wrote a satire on the deifica-
tion (or godlike qualities) of his predecessor, Claudius
(Apocolocyntosis divi Claudi). His other main political
writing is De clementia,in which he advises rulers to
show clemency (or mercy) to their political oppo-
nents. In all of these works, Seneca urges moderation,
decency, and wisdom in rulers. Living during the most
brutal, decadent period in Roman history, he, like
Cicero, was trying to restore the virtue and nobility of
the old Roman Republic. Unsuccessful, he was impli-
cated in a plot to assassinate the insane emperor Nero
and was compelled to commit suicide.Further Reading
Griffin, M. T. Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics.Oxford, Eng.:
Clarendon Press, 1976.separation of powers
The doctrine in POLITICAL THEORYthat the government
should be divided into different branches serving dis-
tinct functions (such as legislative, executive, judicial).
Traceable to ARISTOTLE’s MIXED CONSTITUTION, the sepa-
ration of powers doctrine underlies the structure of the
U.S. CONSTITUTIONand Madisonian American DEMOC-
RACY. Derived from the Protestant CHRISTIANtheology
of John CALVIN, which fears the TYRANNICAL use of
power by sinful people, this constitutional separation
of powers limits the authority of any one person,
group, class, or level of government, preventing politi-
cal DESPOTISMand oppression. British LIBERALphiloso-
pher John LOCKE and French thinker MONTESQUIEU
detail the advantages of breaking up political power in
the MODERN REPUBLIC. The American FEDERALISTSmade
this into a new “science of politics,” establishing a sys-
tem of CHECKS AND BALANCESto preserve individual
RIGHTSand LIBERTY.
Specifically, the U.S. Constitution sets up three
branches of government (executive, or president; leg-
islative, or Congress; judicial, or the federal courts),
conferring definite duties and powers on each. These
governmental groups are considered equal and
autonomous, none under the total control of any other
(so the Congress does not chose the president or the
courts the legislature). Each branch of government has
a distinct function that the other branches are not to
invade (so the Judicial branch should not legislate or
execute laws; the Congress should not judge law).
There is overlapping jurisdiction between the branches
(the president appoints federal court judges and the
Congress confirms those nominations; the president274 Seneca, L. Annaeus