how far the state can legislate after the initial contract
forming it, whether or not people born “into” the soci-
ety after the contract is constructed are bound by it,
and how to amend the founding contract continue.
Generally, procedures of LAW continue the original
form of the state, and CITIZENs are expected to obey the
government (tacit consent) or move to another coun-
try. Only extreme abuse of authority or individual
rights justifies overthrowing the state and creating a
new government.
Critics of social-contract views of politics fault its
legalistic, amoral qualities (e.g., St. Thomas AQUINAS)
or its business contract, capitalist features (e.g., Karl
MARX). But the populism, democracy, and freedom
afforded by a social-contract view of government
explain its wide acceptance.
Further Reading
Barker, E. The Social Contract.London: Oxford University Press,
1946.
Social Darwinism/Darwinist
A social theory in the late 19th-century United States
that applied the scientific evolutionary ideas of
Charles Darwin to society and economics. Just as
Darwin claimed that competition and adaptation to
environment by animal species led to the “survival of
the fittest” and the extinction of the weak, Social
Darwinists insisted that individual social competi-
tion in CAPITALISMled to the success of the fittest and
the defeat of the weak or lazy. Corresponding with a
LAISSEZ-FAIREbusiness ETHIC, Social Darwinism justi-
fied the rich as “the good people” and the poor as
“bad,” lazy, or unproductive. This led to the CONSER-
VATIVE IDEOLOGYagainst social welfare (which would
only reward and encourage laziness and inefficiency)
that followed into RIGHT-WING REPUBLICAN PARTYpo-
licy (see Ronald REAGAN). A leading proponent of
Social Darwinist thought was William Graham SUM-
NER, a Yale sociologist. He allowed for private charity
to the poor but resisted public welfare as (1) unjust to
the wealthy, who are taxed to support it, and (2)
destructive to the poor, who will lose all incentive to
work to improve their own lives. A contemporary
thinker from this LIBERTARIAN perspective is Robert
NOZICK.
With the rise of INDUSTRIALISMthe Social-Darwinist
perspective was increasingly discredited and eclipsed
by the WELFARE-STATEliberalism of Franklin D. ROO-
SEVELT, the NEW DEAL, and the PROGRESSIVEU.S. DEMO-
CRATIC PARTY.social democracy
A SOCIALIST political movement and IDEOLOGY that
rejected the RADICAL, revolutionary ideas of Karl MARX
and held that socialism could be achieved democrati-
cally. In Europe, social democracy was led by the Ger-
man Social Democratic Party and its chief theoretician,
Edward Bernstein. Similar social-democratic move-
ments existed in France, Italy, and with the FABIANSin
Britain. All agreed that social and economic reform
(benefiting the industrial working class) could be
accomplished through standard political activity (elec-
tions, parties, rallies, etc.) rather than through armed,
violent revolution (as in Russia). This reformist or
revisionist approach to achieving COMMUNISM con-
flicted with classical MARXISM, which insisted that the
state was a tool of the ruling CAPITALISTclass and was
unwilling to transfer power to its class enemies. Radi-
cal Marxists accused social democrats of compromis-
ing with the bourgeoisie oppressors and weakening the
working-class movement. Russian communist V.I.
LENINespecially attacked these reformist social democ-
rats.
Social democracy uses the existing government to
“legislate socialism” through laws favorable to labor
unions, workers, public education, health care, and
housing. In the United States, this stance is expressed
in the far-LEFT of the DEMOCRATIC PARTY; in Great
Britain, in the Labour Party. With the fall of orthodox
communist regimes (such as the SOVIET UNION), the
reform approach of the social democrats seems to have
prevailed.Further Readings
Bernstein, E. Evolutionary Socialism 1898.New York: Schocken
Books, 1961.
Clarke, P. F. Liberals and Social Democrats in Historical Perspec-
tive.Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1978.
Durbin, E. The Politics of Democratic Socialism.London: Rout-
ledge, 1940.social ethics
The way in which political thinkers view and justify
moral or ethical conduct or behavior in society; or
what makes an individual and society “good.” Various
thinkers value different ideals of ETHICS. PLATO dis-278 Social Darwinism/Darwinist