Further Readings
Harding, N., ed. Mar xism in Russia: Key Documents, 1879–1906.
Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Marcuse, H. Soviet Marxism: A Critical Analysis.New York:
Columbia University Press, 1958.
Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903) British philoso-
pher and sociologist
Adapting the scientific evolutionary ideas of Charles
Darwin to politics, Spencer became a leading SOCIAL
DARWINISMthinker in Britain. According to his view,
social progress involves LAISSEZ-FAIREcompetition, the
success of the “superior,” adaptable individuals, and
the death of “inferior” (lazy, stupid) persons. Attempts
to ameliorate this system of social “natural selection”
(social welfare, public assistance to the poor, etc.) only
disrupt the evolutionary process and protect idleness
and incompetence from the consequences of their
weakness, harming social PROGRESS. Like the American
William Graham SUMNER, Spencer believed that social
competition rewarded the smart and industrious and
punished the foolish and lazy. Absolute economic free-
dom and a limited Lockean state foster the general
good of the nation. This doctrine continues in the LIB-
ERTARIANthought of Robert NOZICKand other RIGHT-
WING CONSERVATIVES. Its appeal to big business and
successful corporations is obvious. Its ideological
opponents on the LEFT included SOCIALISTS, COMMU-
NISTS, FABIANS, and SOCIAL DEMOCRATICLiberals, all of
whom saw a positive role for the state in mitigating the
negative effects of early INDUSTRIALISMand capitalism
(urban crowding, ill health, poverty, child labor, etc.).
Herbert Spencer was more of a popular writer than
a scholarly philosopher. His education was largely
technical, and he worked as a railroad engineer. He
wrote for the Economistmagazine, and his main book
was entitled Synthetic Philosophy(published in multi-
ple volumes from 1860 to 1896). His later years were
plagued with illness and intellectual disputations.
Further Reading
Peel, J.D.Y. Herbert Spencer.New York: Basic Books, 1971.
Spinoza, Baruch (1632–1677) Dutch moral
and political philosopher
A descendent of Spanish Jews who immigrated to the
Netherlands, Spinoza combines the REALISMof MACHI-
AVELLI, the SOCIAL-CONTRACTtheory of Thomas HOBBES,
and the sense of ALIENATIONof his own people. With a
pessimistic, materialistic view of HUMAN NATURE(peo-
ple are governed by their irrational passions and emo-
tions), Spinoza portrays society and politics as
unhappy and tragic. Conflict is inevitable among indi-
viduals who only pursue their own self-INTERESTand
are ignorant of true human happiness.
Like Hobbes, he takes a biological view of human-
ity, regards religion as a myth, and views govern-
ment as, at best, only mildly corrupt. True JUSTICEis
impossible, given human ignorance and selfishness.
The majority of people are so stupid that it is
unlikely that the few wise and good will rule, so
improvement through politics is rare. DEMOCRACYis
the best regime (balancing pluralistic interests) but
requires a lengthy tradition of civic culture (FREEDOM;
tolerance; a large, educated middle class). The STAT E
should be run as a MONARCHYor an ARISTOCRACYand
prepare the people for self-government. Most coun-
tries in the world are not prepared for a REPUBLICAN
form of government.
Spinoza reflects much of the MODERN, ENLIGHTEN-
MENTliberalism of his time and expresses a secular
republican ideology that was later developed by John
LOCKE, David HUME, and Jean-Jacques ROUSSEAU.Further Readings
Duff, R. A. Spinoza’s Political and Ethical Philosophy.New York:
Augustus M. Kelley, 1970.
McShea, R. J. The Political Philosophy of Spinoza.New York:
Columbia University Press, 1968.Stalin, Joseph (1879–1953) Communist dicta-
tor of the Soviet Union
Stalin or “Stalinist” represents the brutal TOTALITAR-
IAN TYRANNY of COMMUNIST Russia. Ruling as an
ABSOLUTISTtyrant over the USSR from 1929 to 1953,
Stalin epitomized the oppressive, harsh society of
communism. The total loss of personal FREEDOM,
individual RIGHTS, and DEMOCRATIC government
marked Stalinist Russia. Brutal DICTATORSHIP, state
censorship, secret police, arbitrary arrests and execu-
tions, fear, and terror characterized Soviet life under
Stalin. This closed, impoverished, paranoid, aggres-
sive nation belied the liberation and prosperity prom-
ised by MARXISTtheory: Instead of a heaven on earth,
Soviet communism under Stalin displayed a hell-like
existence.Stalin, Joseph 283