Utilitarian philosophy continues to be refined into
the 20th century by R. M. Hare, Ronald Dworkin, and
H. Sidgwick. John RAWLSprovides a contemporary cri-
tique of utilitarian philosophy in his book A Theory of
Justice.
Further Readings
Lyons, D. Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism. Oxford, Eng.:
Clarendon Press, 1965.
Smart, J. J. C., and Williams, B., eds. Utilitarianism: For and
Against.New York: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
utopia
An ideal society that does not currently exist. Literary
depictions of utopia include PLATO’s Republic, Sir
Thomas MORE’s Utopia (1516), and Edward BELLAMY’s
novel Looking Backward (1888). Utopian literature
serves the purpose of criticizing contemporary politi-
cal injustice and formulating a system of greater JUS-
TICE. This critical and constructive effect of utopian
writing has led to many practical social reforms and
more humane policies. Plato’s Republicformulates the
perfect state governed by wise PHILOSOPHER-KINGS;
Francis BACON’s New Atlantispresents an ideal govern-
ment of scientists and engineers; Charles FOURIER
offers a SOCIALISTutopian society.
The utopian urge flows from a dissatisfaction with
existing society and the belief that humanity can create
perfect social and political systems. CONSERVATIVE
thinkers (St. AUGUSTINE, Edmund BURKE), who see evil
as inevitable in HUMAN NATURE and unalterable by
social change, are less likely to formulate ideal utopias.
The disastrous results of idealistic theories in the 20th
century (COMMUNISM, FASCISM) have made utopias less
popular and actually spawned a dysptopian literature,
showing the tragedy of trying to create “heaven on
earth,” such as Huxley’s Brave New Worldand George
Orwell’s 1984.In these critiques of utopian thinking,
the idealistic reformers produce the most cruel, TOTALI-
TARIANregimes (like the SOVIET UNION) where all FREE-
DOM and prosperity are lost in the TYRANNICAL
enforcement of EQUALITY.
For CHRISTIANpolitical thought, only an internal,
individual change or spiritual “new birth” can change
society, not a reordering of social or economic institu-
tions. U.S. writer Nathaniel Hawthorne parodied a
New England utopian community in his novel
BLYTHEDALEROMANCE.
Despite the decline in utopian writing during the
mid-20th century, IDEALISM arose again in the 1960s
New LEFTISTmovements, and communal utopias again
flourished. Traditional MARXISMdenounced such social-
ist utopias as idealistic and contrary to the objective
laws of history.
Karl MANNHEIMdescribed the sociology of utopian
thinking in his book Ideology and Utopia (1929).
Utopias tend to emerge in response to difficult or
tragic social conditions and then inform political
change and reform.Further Readings
Manuel, F. E., and Manuel, F. P. Utopian Thought in the Western
World.Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1979.
Mannheim, K. Ideology and Utopia,L. Wirth and E. Shils, transl.
New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1936.300 utopia