W

Ward, Nathaniel (1578–1652) English/Ameri-
can jurist and clergyman

A PURITANminister and lawyer, Ward wrote the New
England legal code that was adopted by the Massachu-
setts General Court in 1641. Entitled “The Body of
Liberties,” these Puritan civil LAWSwere based on the
Bible and English common law. This approach to a
CHRISTIANcommonwealth formed the basis of law in
early America for several generations and the Calvinist
theory of CHURCH AND STATErelations to this day.
Ward was educated at Cambridge University and
practiced law in London before immigrating to Amer-
ica. While visiting Heidelberg, Ward studied John
CALVIN’s theology and entered the ministry. He served
as a pastor in Prussia, England, and America. His most
famous book was the Puritan classic The Simple Cob-
bler of Agawam(1647).

Further Readings
Mather, Cotton. Magnalia Christi Americana.London: 1702.
Morison, S. E. Builders of the Bay Colony.Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1930.

Weber, Max (1864–1920) German sociologist
and historian

Best known for his study of modern BUREAUCRACY,

Weber wrote extensively on the connections between

economics, politics, and religion. In his famous book,

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,Weber

argued that the Calvinist view of work as a divine call-

ing from God encouraged industry and frugality, sav-

ings and investment, leading to a CAPITALISTeconomy.

The Protestant CHRISTIAN ETHICof hard work (“as unto

the Lord” [Colossians 3:23]), revealing (but not earn-

ing) the believer’s salvation and election by God, com-

bined with a simplicity of life, eschewing luxury,

inevitably led to wealth and prosperity in Switzerland,

Britain, and the Netherlands. This, combined with sci-

entific reason, makes MODERN Western civilization

more orderly and efficient. Organization and rationali-

zation of the economy and government follow these

developments.

For example, Weber shows that political leadership

goes through a transformation from MEDIEVAL tradi-

tional rulership based on family, personal accomplish-

ment and loyalty to impersonal offices, procedures,

and rules. The standard for legitimate AUTHORITY

changes from a leader with certain personal character-

istics or pedigree to an official chosen for professional

training and following specified procedures. This

forms the basis of Modern bureaucratic states: imper-

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