toward states rights and secession, especially in South
Carolina, Calhoun’s home state.
John Calhoun was born in rural South Carolina. He
graduated from Yale University in 1804. Before going
into national politics, he served in the state legislature,
later went on to represent South Carolina in Congress,
and ultimately served as secretary of war under Presi-
dent James Monroe and as vice president under Presi-
dent John Quincy Adams. Calhoun’s major political
philosophy writings were not published until after his
death, but his books, Disquisition on Governmentand
Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the
United States, greatly influenced southern political
thought prior to the Civil War. His large plantation
became the foundation of Clemson University.
Further Readings
Calhoun, J. C. A Disquisition on Government,with selections
from the Discourse, C. Gordon Post, ed. Indianapolis:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1953.
Hartz, L. The Liberal Tradition in America.New York: Harcourt,
Brace & World, 1955.
Jenkins, W. S. Pro-Slavery Thought in the Old South.Gloucester,
Mass.: P. Smith, 1935.
Parrington, V. L. Main Curr ents in American Thought,vol. II.
New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1958: 69–82.
Wiltse, C. A Life of John C. Calhoun,3 vols. Indianapolis: Bobbs-
Merrill, 1944–51.
Calvin, John (1509–1564)/Calvinist Protes-
tant Christian theologian, reformer, and governor
John Calvin is probably the most important, influential
thinker of the Protestant REFORMATIONof the CHRISTIAN
church in Europe in the 16th century. Calvinist or
Reformed churches appeared in Germany, the Nether-
lands, England (PURITAN), Scotland, France (HUGUE-
NOTS), parts of Eastern Europe, and North America.
Calvinism especially characterized the churches of
the United States of America (New England Puri-
tans, Scots PRESBYTERIANS, Dutch Reformed, and many
BAPTISTS). Most founders of the U.S. CONSTITUTION
were Calvinist Protestant Christians (for example,
James MADISON). The Calvinist theology of INDIVIDUAL-
ISM, salvation by grace through faith, divine elec-
tion, occupational calling and work ethic, and REPUBLI-
CAN church polity permeates American culture and
society.
In his political thought, Calvin conceived of CHURCH
AND STATEas both under the authority of Christ. Both
ecclesiastical and civil government are called to serve
God, although in different capacities. The church
teaches the people Christian truth and advises the gov-
ernment. If civil laws do not reflect the truth of God,
they will not succeed. In Calvin’s city of Geneva,
Switzerland (where he ruled for 20 years), as well as in
other Calvinist cities (Edinburgh, Scotland; Boston,
Massachusetts), the Bible was the standard for public
education and civil law. A Christian commonwealth
rested on the strong cultural influence of the church as
well as Christian magistrates.
For Calvin, the job of government or “magistracy”
was as sacred a calling as the church ministry. State
officials were accountable to God for their actions and
carried an awesome responsibility for carrying out just
laws and displaying an honest, virtuous life. Knowing
that people in high positions of authority would be an
example to the young, government rulers must be
above reproach in duty and integrity. As God’s ser-
vants, church ministers and civil magistrates deserve
the honor and respect of the people. America Puritan
John WINTHROP reflected this understanding of the
proper role of the Christian ruler.
In the MEDIEVALEurope of ARISTOCRACYand MONAR-
CHY, Calvin’s thought introduced REPUBLICANprinciples
of EQUALITYand elected government in both church
and state. Instead of priests appointed by bishops,
most Calvinist ministers were elected by church con-
gregations and shared power with elders and deacons.
Instead of hereditary princes, most Calvinist states
elected their rulers for limited terms. Then, church
and state were to cooperate in establishing and main-
taining a Christian commonwealth. The civil state pri-
marily punishes crime but also promotes Christian
virtue by education, rewards, honors, and so on. The
church primarily preaches the gospel of Christ but also
punishes by excommunication of notorious, unrepen-
tant sinners. With sinful, fallen human nature, no soci-
ety will ever reach perfection, for Calvin, but the
combined rule of Christian churches and Christian
governors will produce the most healthy, moral society
possible.
John Calvin’s own life reflected his synthesis of reli-
gion and politics. He was a scholar, theologian, and
political ruler. He governed the city of Geneva as chief
magistrate with assistance from four ranks of officials:
pastors, doctors, elders, and deacons. Additionally, a
“consistory” of ministers and laypeople served as a tri-
bunal of social morals. Geneva under Calvin became a
city known for great piety, strict morals, cleanliness,
order, and economic prosperity. His chief theological46 Calvin, John