citizen/citizenship 59organization (church, college, town, etc.). Christianity
placed the individual’s citizenship both on earth (The
City of Man) and in heaven (The City of God); St.
AUGUSTINEbelieve Christians have a duty to serve in
government to promote the common good, but no
worldly regime is perfect, and our true citizenship is in
heaven through Christ. Protestant thinker John CALVIN
emphasized that people are equal through universal
sinfulness, which commended a democratic form of
government in both church and state. Many Christian
churches diminish the importance of political citizen-
ship by focusing on spiritual development and “the
inner life” and by regarding all worldly governments as
dominated by pride, vanity, power, and prestige.
The MODERN, LIBERAL idea of citizenship revolves
around “representative” democracy. In this view, citi-
zens are those who are either born or naturalized in
the country and have the right to votefor rulers who
make the laws. This once-removed citizenship allows
the person to participate directly (if elected to govern-
mental office) or indirectly (by choosing those in posi-
tions of power) or to not be involved in politics at all.
The tendency of Western democracies to have fewer
and fewer people vote in elections causes concern that
a small ELITEreally runs the country and that society is
becoming more undemocratic. Benjamin Barber’s
Strong Democracy addresses this concern. Also, as
more people in the world become increasingly inter-
ested in their private economic lives, the concern with
the public good diminishes. Consumerism, selfish
hedonism, and complex interest groups all decrease
full, national citizenship.
An alternative in some societies is to identify citi-
zenship with an ethnic or religious character (as being
Jewish in Israel, Muslim in Arab countries, Chinese,
African, etc.) rather than with human reason or gover-
nance. This extends the citizenship to many but makes
it superficial and tribal (see FASCISM). The United
States, because of its multiethnic quality, cannot base
citizenship on religion, race, or even language. Conse-
quently, citizenship in the United States and the West-
ern world generally is a fluid, changing phenomenon.Department of Labor training service. Italian class receiving instruction in English and citizenship, Newark, N.J. Y.M.C.A.
(LIBRARY OFCONGRESS)