and orderly. Thomas JEFFERSON’s appreciation of Chris-
tian ethics (or “the ethics of Jesus”) as a support for
the American democratic system follows this view-
point. The standard for religious truth is how usefulit
is to society. A creed that makes people mystical or
withdrawn from the world (or critical of the govern-
ment) is to be suppressed. Hence, the Rousseauian
French revolutionaries persecuted Christians, espe-
cially CATHOLICSwho objected to the new French gov-
ernment and supported the French MONARCHY and
ARISTOCRACY.
In the 20th century, FASCISMis noted for its use of
civil religion. NAZIGermany extolled “The State” and
“The Leader” (Führer) to a godlike status. Many Ger-
man Protestants endorsed “Aryan Christianity,” which
viewed Hitler’s regime and the modern German nation
as God’s instrument. This corruption of the church
discredited the Christian faith.
In the United States of America, a kind of “civil
religion” exists when Christianity is mixed with
national patriotism and the line between God and
country is blurred. The quasi-religious tones of certain
national holidays, such as the Fourth of July, Memorial
Day, Thanksgiving Day, and Martin Luther King, Jr.,
Day, afford a semblance of civil religion that identifies
Americans as a “chosen people” of God, under his sp
cial providence and care, receiving unique blessings
and protection so long as his people follow and obey
his laws. Early American PURITAN theology, with its
COVENANTview of Christianity, its belief that they were
to create “a city on a hill,” a godly civilization as a bea-
con of hope to the world and work under special
responsibilities to be faithful to God, became inter-
woven with America’s civil religion. President Ronald
REAGAN skillfully employed rhetoric expressing this
religious foundation of America in explaining contem-
porary REPUBLICAN PARTYpolicy. The diversity and EVAN-
GELICAL character of most of American religion has
limited this use of Christianity as a civil religion, and it
retains its transcendent, universal quality among most
American believers. So, for example, when a church or
minister (as Marion “Pat” ROBERTSONrunning for U.S.
president) identifies religion too closely with politics,
the American tradition of separation of CHURCH AND
STATErejects that attempt to co-opt religion for purely
political purposes.
A true civil religion has to be vague enough to
gather broad support, so the traditional faiths
(Judaism, Christianity, Islam) are less serviceable for
that purpose. A general ethical, monotheism empha-
sizing social morality, is more likely to become a civil
religion. With the U.S. CONSTITUTIONAL guarantee of
religious freedom and pluralism, such a uniform civil
religion is less likely to exist.Further Reading
Bellah, R. N., and Hammond, P. E. Variety of Civil Religions.
New York: Harper & Row, 1980.civil society
A society advanced enough to have organized groups
and activities, such as businesses, markets, schools,
clubs, professional associations, and governmental in-
stitutions. In the MODERN, LIBERALthought of Thomas
HOBBESand John LOCKE, civil society is contrasted with
the pre-political state of nature where isolated individ-
uals roam around, compete with one another, and
injure each other. Civil society “civilizes” the natural
human, who through reason, creates the SOCIALCON-
TRACTthat establishes organized society and delegated
government. For Hobbes and Locke, this secures social
peace, allowing safe development of trade, commerce,
education, arts, and prosperity. The STAT Eis limited to
protecting individual RIGHTS, including those of associ-
ations in civil society (such as clubs, businesses, reli-
gious groups, etc.). When the state (as in COMMUNISM)
takes over all human rights and associations under the
government, it destroys civil society. So one of the
challenges for former communist countries (such as
the SOVIET UNION) has been to establishthe institutions
of civil society. If under a TOTALITARIANregime no pri-
vate associations were allowed (like the Boy Scouts or
professional groups) apart from the state, the state
takes time to set up the independent groups necessary
to civil society. So although the United States enjoys an
extensive nongovernmental civil society, whenever the
state or large corporations seem to be taking over
smaller associations, it is feared the civil society may
be lost and TYRANNY will emerge. James MADISON
insisted that a large variety of groups in civil society
(PLURALISM) was needed to secure FREEDOM.
Political thinkers, who favored a strong, centralized
state (MARX, HEGEL, ROUSSEAU) tended to be critical of
civil society with its many independent groups and
associations. Rousseau viewed civil society as full of
vanity, pomp, inequality, and elitist authority, so his
unified state under the GENERAL WILLdestroyed much
of civil society. Marxist communism viewed civil soci-
ety as CAPITALISTmaterialism, brutal competition, and62 civil society