Between informal and formal cultural economyof legality by purchasing the broadcast rights to copyrighted programs, both locally made and
foreign. As will be discussed in later sections, these video websites have invited subtitle groups to
produce Chinese subtitles for legitimately broadcast foreign programs.
It has been argued that Chinese subtitle groups’ work ethic shows an interesting mix of neo-
liberalism and altruism (Hu 2012). The historical development of Chinese video websites has
also been shaped by competition and cooperation between video websites and subtitle groups
during different periods (Hu 2014). This chapter builds on these previous studies, exploring
the new dynamics of Chinese subtitle groups since 2010. The following sections of this chapter
will discuss the way in which Chinese subtitle groups assume the role of invisible heroes who
demonstrate their commitment through their flexible accumulation of fan labor and their use of
their organization’s collective power. It is discussed how some major subtitle groups crossed over
from being underground to being official, not only by maintaining their own forums, but also
through plugging into the legitimate cultural economy by formally cooperating with foreign
TV companies and local video websites. How are state regulation, copyright enforcement, and
the new market mechanisms of online viewing in China reshaping subtitle groups and video
websites? Why do Chinese subtitle groups have strong ambitions to conquer the online world,
apart from their main motivations of fan affection and the spirit of volunteering? What kind of
mental liberation is embedded in the subtitle movement through the coparticipation of both
subtitle groups and Chinese online audiences?
No ordinary fans: Excellent and disciplined work
Since the emergence of Chinese subtitle groups around the beginning of the twenty-first century,
most of the larger groups have survived and grown into mature organizations with a steady
output. They are ardent fans who love foreign programs and are dedicated to subtitle produc-
tion and online circulation. The affection of these “fansubbers” is difficult to measure, but it is
clearly deep, as seen in their willingness to continue their work even when a program has already
been subtitled by others. (It is not unusual for different subtitle groups to create subtitles for
the same program, so that there are various versions available online.) Chinese subtitle groups
demonstrate a kind of “productivity and participation” through their absolute absorption and
commitment in the work (Fiske 1992, 37).
In Henry Jenkins’ interview with Zheng Xiqing, a Chinese student who is also a fansubber
pursuing a Ph.D. in the United States, Zheng responds to a question about why fans in China
see themselves as belonging to an “elite group,” while in some parts of the world fan culture is
not considered elite due to “the low cultural status of materials” it embraces (Jenkins 2013). She
says that the specific history of Chinese fan culture was at first intimately connected with an
elite image because it was well-educated university students who, since the end of the twentieth
century, took the initiative to export, absorb, and spread foreign popular culture. As a result of
this tradition in the Chinese fan culture, the majority of subtitle group members are “urbanites,
college students, and white collar [workers]” in their 20s and 30s (Hu 2012).
In fact, fansubbers are no ordinary fans, as they are required to perform excellent and disci-
plined work with great efficiency. Those who are interested in working for subtitle groups must
have good language ability, regularly scheduled work times, basic technology skills, and a well-
equipped computer with fast Internet access. For example, as part of the online recruitment
process for YYeTs, one of the largest subtitle groups, applicants are asked to do some translation
work provided by the subtitle group to demonstrate their competency in translation (YYeTs.
com 2014). After passing that test, they need to attend internal training and undergo further
evaluation for two weeks to one month before being allowed to volunteer to translate.