- Age Structure
From the perspective of life cycle, researchers’production in terms of publi-
cations looks like invert U shape curve, thusfirst increase at the beginning of their
career, and then decrease as they grow older (Kyvik 1996 ). Many studies pointed
out that, in thefirst several years of their professional careers, university researchers
always experience more pressure and higher motivation, and thus the younger staff
tend to have more research outputs (Sax et al. 2002 ). Taking Germany as a typical
case, Rauber and Ursprung ( 2007 ) explored the life cycle and cohort effect in
economic research, and found that the number of publications of German econo-
mists usually reached theirfirst maximum after seven years when their PhD were
granted, and stayed relatively stable for the next ten years. In the mid-term of their
research careers, the number of publications would grow for a second time and then
decreasefive years before retirement.(2) Gender Ratio
Concerning gender issues in university, most studies held a consistent view—the
higher the ratio of female to male, the lower one university’s research efficiency
would be (Hamovitch and Morgenstern 1977 ).
As the earliest sociologist who proposed the issues of gender gaps in scientific
society, Jonathan Cole found that male scientists were much easier to get promoted
in a research institution than female, especially in those university or institutes with
higher reputation, male scientists could get promoted much faster. In aspect of
academic reputation, most female scientists are not as renowned as male peers, and
their works are easy to be belittled. Even in the circle of world-class scientists such
as of Nobel Laureates, it’s hard for female scientists to hold equal position with
their male peers. This is what Cole proposed as the productivity puzzle. A study of
Xie and Shauman ( 1998 ) found that, as time goes on, the outputs of female
researchers will increase substantially, and the gender gaps on research outputs will
be narrowed. Nevertheless, the lifetime research outputs of male researchers still
outperform those of female researchers with a significant difference (Hamovitch and
Morgenstern 1977 ; Primack and O’Leary 1989 ; Reskin 1978 ; Fox 2005 ; Rauber
and Ursprung 2007 ), which is much more obvious in high- productivity researchers.
(Sax et al. 2002 ). Thus, female researchers are placed in disadvantage among
outstanding researchers (Primack and O’Leary 1989 ), and there are much more
male university staff be defined as high-productivity staff, and among those staff
without any formal publications, the proportion of female is very substantial (Kyvik
1996 ). As an individual ages, the gender gap will befirst narrowed then enlarged.
Under the age of 40, the gender gap is the biggest, and male staff will publish two
times papers more than female staff on average. After the age of 40, the gap will be
slightly narrowed, but will be enlarged again around the age of 50 (Kyvik 1996 ).
Many Chinese studies also provide the same evidences, among faculty members
with senior ranks or titles, the proportion of female is much lower than male, and
among those with lower ranks or titles, the proportion of female is substantially high
(Chen 2008 ). Among principle investigators of research projects, there are fewer268 6 Exploring Factors Impacting on Research Efficiency...