SMART CITIES IN JAPAN AND THEIR APPLICATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 97approximately 70 % of all energy consumption, and the designation is still
increasing in size (as of 2015).
ZEBS, or zero emission buildings, are also being promoted by the
Japanese government. As greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from build-
ings account for more than 30 % of total levels (IPCC 2007 ), ZEB/ZEH
(zero emission buildings/houses) regulations developed in 2010 state
that by 2030, all newly built buildings must be ZEBs. Currently, 85 %
of non-residential buildings and 49 % of residential buildings meet the
Japanese government’s 2011 energy effi ciency standards (MLIT 2014 ).
As Japan represents one of the most important centres for SC devel-
opment, this chapter fi rst examines a Japanese case (Yokohama) and
describes typical features that are of relevance to four representative city
sectors: energy, waste, transportation, and water. The chapter also exam-
ines policies in these sectors in terms of regulations, standards, planning
and administrative directions, economic measures, voluntary actions, and
environmental ethics. The chapter then discusses the possible application
of SC concepts in developing countries and in Indian slums in particu-
lar. Then, it shows how the principal application of SC in slums may be
feasible in the energy sector. Finally, this chapter presents ways of applying
SC principles in developing countries based on the leapfrogging model.
6.2 D EFINITION OF SC AND THE JAPANESE CASE
6.2.1 Defi nition of SCAccording to Fukuchi ( 2011 ), a fi rm defi nition of SC “has not been estab-
lished necessarily.” Fukuchi defi nes a smart city as “a city of high effi ciency
with integrated infrastructure by leveraging IT to support urban life. It
contributes to growth from sustainable cities while seeking to resolve the
disadvantages of urbanization.” Fukuchi also states that SC concepts have
not established where SCs should be developed or how much “smarter”
a place should be.
According to Goda and Morozumi (2011), although a microgrid refers
only to the supply side, a smart grid includes both supply- and demand-
side networks. The authors also defi ne an SC as a city with a smart grid
and with other smart utility systems (Fig. 6.1 ).
European smart cities are conspicuously known for the EU project
“European Smart Cities,” which identifi es six elements of an SC: economy,
people, governance, mobility, environment, and living (Giffi nger et al. 2007 ;