106 N. KONO ET AL.
Areas referred to as slums by respective municipalities, corporations,
local bodies, or development authorities were treated as “identifi ed
slums.” Only slums in urban areas were examined in this study. If a slum
partly covered a sampled urban block, the portion found within the sam-
pled block was considered a slum for the purposes of this survey, provided
it contained at least 20 households, which applied to both identifi ed and
unidentifi ed slums (NSSO 2010a , b ). In addition, households without
secure tenure were defi ned as squatters (whether or not they pay rent), as
homeless cases, and as households with no formal agreements adapted to
Millennium Development Goal (MDG) monitoring (NSSO 2010a , b ).
Using this categorization system, the following section describes Indian
slums with regard to the four sectors and three fi elds of SCs.
6.5.2 The Four Sectors and Three Fields with Regard to Indian
Slum ConditionsTo understand slum household characteristics, following the Yokohama
case study approach, the authors examined the energy, water, waste and
transport sectors, which formed a comprehensive account of slum house-
hold conditions in India. Major utility services used in urban Indian
households were identifi ed.
(1) Energy
From the results of the “Indian Human Development Survey,” a mul-
tipurpose household survey conducted in 2009, Table 6.4 shows that
fi rewood is used for cooking fuel and that kerosene is used for lighting in
slum households (Desai and Vanneman 2009 ). This survey is also based
on a nationally representative survey. In non-slum areas, LPG was found
to serve as the main source of cooking fuel and kerosene was used for
lighting. According to the survey, 6.9 % of slum households and 8 % of
non-slum households use dwellings for residential commercial activities.
It should also be noted that 37.2 % of slum dwellings are characterized by
Table 6.3 Slums in India (%)
Identifi ed
slum (1)Unidentifi ed
slum (2)Squatter (3) All-slum
(4 = 1 + 2 + 3)Non-slum (5)Household (%) 7.02 6.30 1.35 14.68 85.32
Source: NSSO ( 2010a , b )