SMART CITIES IN JAPAN AND THEIR APPLICATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 111A closer examination reveals more household fuel composition fea-
tures. Table 6.9 shows that income levels appear to infl uence energy carrier
choices, with biofuels more commonly used as cooking fuels in low-income
households than in higher-income households. Electricity usage for cook-
ing is highly limited among both low- and high-income groups.
Electricity is often used among high-income groups for lighting purposes
and is less often used by lower-income households (Reddy and Srinivas
2009 ). Table 6.4 presents fuel composition comparisons between slum and
non-slum households for cooking purposes primarily. Firewood and biomass
(e.g., dung) are more commonly used in slum areas than in non-slum areas.
LPG, however, is more often used in non-slum areas than in slum areas.
Table 6.5 shows that slum households enjoy relatively high levels of
electricity accessibility, although most slums in Delhi do not have elec-
tricity on an offi cial basis. Even when a certain level of accessibility to
electricity exists, transmission and distribution (T&D) losses are generally
signifi cant. For the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development) countries, T&D losses are normally less than 10 %, whereas
rates exceed 30 % on average in India (Joseph 2010 ). In India, this loss is
mainly attributed to power theft (Dhingra et al. 2008 ). However, some
slum residents acquire electricity access by hooking in or by paying con-
tractors, and high electricity access rates are thus occasionally related to
illegal wiring (Fig. 6.3 ).
Table 6.9 Energy carrier mix levels for various end users (2004–2005)
End use Energy carrier % of households using various energy carriers
Low income Mid income High incomeCooking Biofuels 81.3 61.8 31.8
Kerosene 8.0 5.2 4.5
LPG 8.5 31.3 61.2
Electricity/Other 2.2 1.7 2.6
Lighting Kerosene 29.1 15.2 6.1
Electricity 69.5 83.1 93.6
Other (or no lighting) 1.4 1.7 0.3
Total households (million) 68.3 107.6 29.5
Source: International Institute of Population Studies (2003), adopted from Reddy and Srinivas ( 2009 )