SMART CITIES IN JAPAN AND THEIR APPLICATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 119are regarded as separation versus one. A model that applies and considers
levels of each activity ( z -axis) on x – y coordinates was considered.
In the poorest country, active mass levels take a value of zero or a coun-
try engages in forms of international cooperation in which marginal city
development outcomes are afforded to a fairly developed country, and SC
development may occur via leapfrogging effects.
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Fig. 6.5 SC leapfrogging model. Drawn from Kono et al. ( 2012a , b ) and from
Kono ( 2012 )