Increasing Access to and Retention in Primary Education in Malaysia 153
across subjects of over 80 per cent. As discussed above, there are a number
of factors that may contribute to the lower performance in Sabah and
Sarawak, including historical residue from less provision of schooling
during the colonial period, high poverty rates, and the rural nature of the
population in these states. In contrast, the population in W.P. Putrajaya is
highly urbanized and has a greater proportion of middle- to upper-income
families (Government of Malaysia, 2012).
Students in rural areas perform less well than their urban peers. Note,
however, that while the rural–urban gap in exam performance remained
visible, it narrowed between 2005 and 2011 from more than 7.0 per cent
to 3.8 per cent. States with more rural schools, like Sabah and Sarawak,
usually underperform states with fewer rural schools (Government of
Malaysia 2012).
Studies reveal that, from 2006 to 2011, girls consistently outperformed
boys on UPSR and other learning outcome measures, though the details
have not been provided (Government of Malaysia 2012).
Finally, educational outcomes are poorer for the Orang Asli group as
compared to the national average. For instance, in 2011, while 61 per cent
of students in Orang Asli schools passed the core subjects in the UPSR, the
national average was 87 per cent. Additionally, 35 per cent of the schools
primarily attended by Orang Asli are identified as being in the “poor
performance” band, although this is the case for only 1 per cent of public
schools generally (Government of Malaysia, 2012).
DRIVERS AND IMPEDIMENTS OF CHANGE
Policies Affecting Access and Retention
The dramatic rise in the NER between 1972 and 1994 can be attributed
to the policies set by the government that placed priority on educational
development. It is commonplace to argue that the political will of
government officials is a key factor shaping progress in achieving
universal primary education (e.g., see Kozack 2009). Evidence of Malaysian
government officials’ political will can be seen in the First Malaysia Plan
(1955–60), which gave priority to access in education. It was during this
period that the government implemented double shifting so that more
students could use the existing school buildings (UNDP 2005). In addition,
the New Economic Policy, adopted in 1971 in the wake of the May 1969